Richard P. Bagozzi

Computer systems cannot improve organizational performance if they aren't used. Unfortunately, resistance to end-user systems by managers and professionals is a widespread problem. To better predict, explain, and increase user acceptance, we need to better understand why people accept or reject computers. This research addresses the ability to predict peoples' computer acceptance from a measure of their intentions, and the ability to explain their intentions in terms of their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and related variables. In a longitudinal study of 107 users, intentions to use a specific system, measured after a one-hour introduction to the system, were correlated 0.35 with system use 14 weeks later. The intention-usage correlation was 0.63 at the end of this time period. Perceived usefulness strongly influenced peoples' intentions, explaining more than half of the variance in intentions at the end of 14 weeks. Perceived ease of use had a small but significant effect on intentions as well, although this effect subsided over time. Attitudes only partially mediated the effects of these beliefs on intentions. Subjective norms had no effect on intentions. These results suggest the possibility of simple but powerful models of the determinants of user acceptance, with practical value for evaluating systems and guiding managerial interventions aimed at reducing the problem of underutilized computer technology.

Previous research indicates that perceived usefulness is a major determinant and predictor of intentions to use computers in the workplace. In contrast, the impact of enjoyment on usage intentions has not been examined. Two studies are reported concerning the relative effects of usefulness and enjoyment on intentions to use, and usage of, computers in the workplace. Usefulness had a strong effect on usage intentions in both Study 1, regarding word processing software (β=.68), and Study 2, regarding business graphics programs (β=.79). As hypothesized, enjoyment also had a significant effect on intentions in both studies, controlling for perceived usefulness (β=.16 and 0.15 for Studies 1 and 2, respectively). Study 1 found that intentions correlated 0.63 with system usage and that usefulness and enjoyment influenced usage behavior entirely indirectly through their effects on intentions. In both studies, a positive interaction between usefulness and enjoyment was observed. Together, usefulness and enjoyment explained 62% (Study 1) and 75% (Study 2) of the variance in usage intentions. Moreover, usefulness and enjoyment were found to mediate fully the effects on usage intentions of perceived output quality and perceived ease of use. As hypothesized, a measure of task importance moderated the effects of ease of use and output quality on usefulness but not on enjoyment. Several implications are drawn for how to design computer programs to be both more useful and more enjoyable in order to increase their acceptability among potential users.

We investigate two key group-level determinants of virtual community participation—group norms and social identity—and consider their motivational antecedents and mediators. We also introduce a marketing-relevant typology to conceptualize virtual communities, based on the distinction between network-based and small-group-based virtual communities. Our survey-based study, which was conducted across a broad range of virtual communities, supports the proposed model and finds further that virtual community type moderates consumers' reasons for participating, as well as the strengths of their impact on group norms and social identity. We conclude with a consideration of managerial and research implications of the findings.

This research was supported by a Senior Fulbright Research Grant to R. P. Bagozzi and a grant to L. W. Phillips from the Distribution Research and Educational Foundation (DREF), National Association of Wholesale Distributors, Washington, DC. Special thanks go to Dirk Van Dongen, Executive Director of DREF, and Ron Schreibman, Director of Research, for their assistance throughout the project. The contributions made to the research by Louis W. Stern, Northwestern University, are gratefully acknowledged. Comments on an earlier draft by Claes Fornell, University of Michigan, Barbara Lawrence and Alvin Silk, MIT, and V. Srinivasan and Jeffrey Pfeffer, Stanford University, also contributed to ideas presented in this paper, as did suggestions made by the editors. A holistic construal is presented to represent and test organizational theories, using examples from contemporary organizational theory and data from a recent study of wholesale distribution companies. The methodology provides a mechanism for linking theory construction and theory testing in organization research by explicitly representing theoretical and empirical concepts, nonobservational hypotheses, and correspondence rules. Unlike traditional methods used for construct validation and hypothesis testing, the methodology permits the researcher to model the extent of random and systematic error in measures of theoretical concepts and to control these sources of error when testing substantive hypotheses. Comparisons made between the holistic construal and traditional procedures show how the latter can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the status of a theory's constructs, hypotheses, and measures.

We argue that attitudes and subjective norms are not sufficient determinants of intentions and that intentions are not a sufficient impetus for action, as maintained by leading theories of attitude. To deepen attitude theory, we address the role of cognitive and emotional self-regulatory mechanisms. The attitude-intention link is hypothesized to depend on conative processes and on certain coping responses directed at the emotional significance of evaluative appraisals

The purpose of this study is to distinguish between cognitive, affective and evaluative components of social identity in the organization and to show how the components instigate behaviours that benefit in‐group members. A new scale for measuring cognitive organizational identification (i.e. self‐categorization) is developed and compared to a leading scale. Internal consistency, convergent validity, predictive validity and generalizability of the two scales are established on a sample of Italian ( N =409) and Korean ( N =283) workers. Next, convergent and discriminant validity for measures of organizational identification, affective commitment and group self‐esteem are demonstrated. Then, two antecedents of these components of social identity are examined: organization prestige and organization stereotypes. Finally, the mediating role of the components of social identity are investigated between the antecedents and five forms of citizenship behaviours. The last three analyses are performed on the Italian ( N =409) workers. Among other findings, the results show that affective commitment and self‐esteem are the primary motivators of citizenship behaviours. Moreover, cognitive identification performs as a central mediator between prestige and stereotypes on the one hand, and affective commitment and self‐esteem on the other. Identification is thus an indirect determinant of citizenship behaviours.

This article presents a critique of a number of shortcomings with the technology acceptance model (TAM) and points to specific remedies in each case. In addition, I present a model for the purposes of providing a foundation for a paradigm shift. The model consists first of a decision making core (goal desire → goal intention → action desire → action intention) that is grounded in basic decision making variables/processes of a universal nature. The decision core also contains a mechanism for self-regulation that moderates the effects of desires on intentions. Second, added to the decision making core are a number of causes and effects of decisions and self-regulatory reasoning, with the aim of introducing potential contingent, contextual nuances for understanding decision making. Many of the causal variables here are contained within TAM or its extensions; also considered are new variables grounded in emotional, group/social/cultural, and goal-directed behavior research.

Theory development typically focuses on relationships among theoretical constructs, placing little emphasis on relationships between constructs and measures. In most cases, constructs are treated as causes of their measures. However, this causal flow is sometimes reversed, such that measures are viewed as causes of constructs. Procedures have been developed to identify and estimate models that specify constructs as causes or effects of measures. However, these procedures provide little guidance for determining a priori whether constructs should be specified as causes or effects of their measures. Moreover, these procedures address few of the possible causal structures by which constructs and measures may be related. This article develops principles for specifying the direction and structure of relationships between constructs and measures. These principles are illustrated using examples from psychological, sociological, and organizational research.

Building on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we develop a new model of purposive behaviour which suggests that desires are the proximal causes of intentions, and the traditional antecedents in the TPB work through desires. In addition, perceived consequences of goal achievement and goal failure are modelled as anticipated emotions, which also function as determinants of desires. The new model is tested in two studies: an investigation of bodyweight regulation by 108 Italians at the University of Rome and an investigation of effort expended in studying by 122 students at the University of Rome. Frequency and recency of past behaviour are controlled for in tests of hypotheses. The findings show that desires fully mediated the effects of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and anticipated emotions on intentions. Significantly greater amounts of variance are explained in intentions and behaviour by the new model in comparison to the TPB and variants of the TPB that include either anticipated emotions and/or past behaviour.

This article proposes a framework for representing personality constructs at four levels of abstraction. The total aggregation model is the composite formed by the sum of scores on all items in a scale. The partial aggregation model treats separate dimensions of a personality construct as indicators of a single latent variable, with each dimension being an aggregation of items. The partial disaggregation model represents each dimension as a separate latent variable, either freely correlated with the other dimensions or loading on one or more than one higher order factor; the measures of the dimensions are multiple indicators formed as aggregates of subsets of items. The total disaggregation model also represents each dimension as a separate latent variable but, unlike the partial disaggregation model, uses each item in the scale as an indicator of its respective factor. Illustrations of the models are provided on the State Self‐Esteem Scale—including tests of psychometric properties, invariance, and generalizability.

There is growing evidence of the increasing participation in, and influence of, virtual communities in digital environments. To help explain this irresistible allure, the individual and social determinants of the member's intentions to participate are investigated. Conceptualizing virtual community participation as intentional social action, we explicate the concept of “we-intentions”, and use the Model of Goal-Directed Behavior to explain members’ we-intentions. Virtual community influences pertaining to compliance, internalization, and social identity are also elaborated on. An empirical study of regular virtual community participants ( N = 157) finds that we-intentions to participate are functions of both individual determinants (positive anticipated emotions and desires), and community influences (social identity). Implications for marketing and future research opportunities are discussed.

Using a grounded theory approach, the authors investigate the nature and consequences of brand love. Arguing that research on brand love needs to be built on an understanding of how consumers actually experience this phenomenon, they conduct two qualitative studies to uncover the different elements (“features”) of the consumer prototype of brand love. Then, they use structural equations modeling on survey data to explore how these elements can be modeled as both first-order and higher-order structural models. A higher-order model yields seven core elements: self–brand integration, passion-driven behaviors, positive emotional connection, long-term relationship, positive overall attitude valence, attitude certainty and confidence (strength), and anticipated separation distress. In addition to these seven core elements of brand love itself, the prototype includes quality beliefs as an antecedent of brand love and brand loyalty, word of mouth, and resistance to negative information as outcomes. Both the first-order and higher-order brand love models predict loyalty, word of mouth, and resistance better, and provide a greater understanding, than an overall summary measure of brand love. The authors conclude by presenting theoretical and managerial implications.

This paper investigates behavior and determinants of the behavior of small group brand community participants. A small group brand community is a friendship group of consumers with a shared enthusiasm for the brand and a well-developed social identity, whose members engage jointly in group actions to accomplish collective goals and/or to express mutual sentiments and commitments. Group activities centered on the brand intermingle with other social activities in these brand communities. A comprehensive model is proposed based on a broadening and deepening of the theory of planned behavior to incorporate social intentions, three aspects of social identity (cognitive self-awareness of membership in the brand community, affective commitment, and evaluative significance of membership), anticipated positive and negative emotions toward achieving or failing to achieve group participation goals, and desire as a transformative mechanism translating reasons for acting into social intentions to do so. The proposed theoretical framework is tested on a sample of 154 members of Harley-Davidson Motorcycle small group brand communities and another sample of 255 members of motorcycle riding groups not organized around specific brands.

A key assumption underlying methods of construct validation is that constructs and their indicators are represented at the appropriate depth (i.e., the specificity versus generality of constructs and their indicators). This article presents a framework that depicts constructs and indicators at various depths and provides guidelines for choosing from among these depths. The framework is then integrated with methods of construct validation based on the confirmatory factor analysis of multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) matrices. The authors apply these methods to the measurement of work values, using the Work Aspect Preference Scale (WAPS). Results show that the WAPS performs better when used to represent relatively specific work values as opposed to more global, general values. Further analyses supported the generalizability of the WAPS factor structure for men and women, although gender differences were found on structured means for several latent value dimensions.

The exchange concept is a key factor in understanding the expanding role of marketing.

Journal Article Trying to Consume Get access Richard P. Bagozzi, Richard P. Bagozzi Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Paul R. Warshaw Paul R. Warshaw Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 17, Issue 2, September 1990, Pages 127–140, https://doi.org/10.1086/208543 Published: 01 September 1990 Article history Received: 01 October 1988 Revision received: 01 February 1990 Published: 01 September 1990

Beliefs, attitudes, and intentions are important factors in the adoption of computer technologies. While contemporary representations have focused on explaining the act of using computers, the role of learning to use the computer needs to be better understood within the overall adoption process. Inadequate learning can curtail the adoption and use of a potentially productive system. We introduce a new theoretical model, the theory of trying, in which computer learning is conceptualized as a goal determined by three attitude components: attitude toward success, attitude toward failure, and attitude toward the process of goal pursuit. Intentions to try and actual trying are the theoretical mechanisms linking these goal-directed attitudes to goal attainment. An empirical study is conducted to ascertain the construct validity and utility of the new theory within the context of the adoption of a word processing package. Specifically, we examine convergent validity, internal consistency reliability, stability, discriminant validity, criterion related validity, predictive validity, and nomological validity in a longitudinal field study of 107 users of the program. The new theory is compared to two models: the theory of reasoned action from the field of social psychology and the technology acceptance model, recently introduced in the management literature. Overall, the findings stress the importance of scrutinizing the goals of decision makers and their psychological reactions to these goals in the prediction of the adoption of computers.

We conceptualize participation in Linux user groups (LUGs) in terms of group-referent intentional actions and investigate cognitive (attitudes, perceived behavioral control, identification with the open source movement), affective (positive and negative anticipated emotions), and social (social identity) determinants of participation and its consequences on Linux-related behaviors of users. This survey-based study, conducted with 402 active LUG members representing 191 different LUGs from 23 countries and employing structural equation modeling methodology, supports the proposed model. Furthermore, we find that the Linux user’s experience level moderates the extent of the LUG’s social influence and its impact on the user’s participation. We conclude with a consideration of the managerial and research implications of the study’s findings.

This article examines three alternative procedures for analyzing multitrait-multimethod matrices: the Campbell-Fiske procedure, confirmatory factor analysis, and the direct product model. The implicit assumptions, as well as the strengths and weaknesses, of each approach are presented and their implications discussed. It is proposed that one should carefully examine model assumptions, individual parameters, and various diagnostic indicators, as well as overall model fits. The implications of these recommendations are illustrated through reanalyses of data from earlier studies of consumer behavior. Potentially misleading conclusions in these studies are corrected in demonstrations of the three procedures. The results show that methods often have multiplicative effects, a finding that supports the direct product model, which has not been previously used in consumer research. The need for multiple-method, multiple-measure approaches to research is highlighted by examining the limitations of single-method, single-measure approaches to theory testing.

The author comments on Fornell and Larcker's article in the February 1981 issue of JMR. He indicates some limitations of the analyses, pinpoints where they can be misleading, and introduces some new notions.

This research explores the role of emotions in goal-directed behaviour. A model is provided for an emotional goal system whereby appraisals of the consequences of achieving or not achieving a goal are hypothesised to elicit anticipatory emotions; the anticipatory emotions are expected, in turn, to contribute to volitions in the service of goal pursuit (namely, intentions, plans, and the decision to expend energy); goal-directed behaviours next arise in response to volitions and lead to goal attainment; and the latter then functions as the basis for a new set of appraisals and accompanying goaloutcome emotions. The model was tested in a longitudinal study of the responses of 406 adults (243 women, 163 men) in The Netherlands. The context for the study was the regulation of one's bodyweight via exercising and dieting.

A number of attitude theories have been proposed recently to explain behaviours subject to thwarting by internal and external impediments. The present research compares the theory of reasoned action, the theory of planned behaviour, a portion of the theory of self‐regulation, and the theory of trying and performs tests of their ability to predict two actions relatively low in perceived behavioural control: exercising and dieting. Respondents were 142 students who participated in a two‐wave survey over a two‐week period. The results indicate that, while attitudes significantly predicted intentions in all theories, subjective norms lead to intentions only under the theory of trying. Further, the effects of past behaviour were not channelled entirely through attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived behavioural control but rather had direct effects on intentions and subsequent behaviour. When past behaviour was taken into account, it was found that the performance of the target acts were not functions of intentions, and perceived behavioural control failed to predict either intentions or behaviour. Desires had strong direct effects on intentions and mediated most of the impact of attitudes. A number of theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Abstract An integrative explanation proposes that culture and gender interact to produce fundamentally different patterns of association between positive and negative emotions. People in independent-based cultures (e.g. the United States) experience emotions in oppositional (i.e. bipolar) ways, whereas people in interdependent-based cultures (e.g. China) experience emotions in dialectic ways. These patterns are stronger for women than men in both cultures. In support of the theory, Study 1 showed that positive and negative emotions are strongly correlated inversely for American women and weakly correlated inversely for American men, but strongly correlated positively for Chinese women and weakly correlated positively for Chinese men. In Study 2, findings for Koreans, although mixed, were closer to the results for Chinese.

Goals play an essential role in the purposive behavior of consumers, but scholars only recently have begun to examine the motivation for goals, their selection and modification, and their pursuit a...

This article investigates how the individual difference variable of state versus action orientation moderates the pattern of relationships among constructs in the theory of reasoned action. State orientation refers to a low capacity for the enactment of action-related mental structures, whereas action orientation refers to a high capacity for this type of enactment. A field study was conducted in the context of consumers' self-reported usage of coupons for grocery shopping. The results showed that state versus action orientation moderates the relative importance of determinants of intentions; specifically, subjective norms become more important as people become state oriented, whereas the relative importance of attitudes increases as people become action oriented. In addition, the study showed that past behavior is a determinant of intentions to use coupons.

The long-term viability of virtual communities depends critically on contribution behavior by their members. We deepen and extend prior research by conceptualizing contributions to virtual communities in terms of small friendship group–referent intention

Abstract Within attitude theory the concepts of desires and intentions are not differentiated but are often treated as synonyms. However, we argue that there are theoretical reasons for distinguishing between desires and intentions, and we articulate three main criteria, perceived performability , action‐connectedness , and temporal framing , that differentiate between the two constructs. Two studies are reported to test the distinction. Study 1 ( n = 188) revealed that desires, compared to intentions, are less performable, are less connected to actions, and are enacted over longer time frames. Study 2 ( n = 249) showed, among other things, that the perceived feasibility for actions that are desired and intended is higher than for those that are only desired, but only when the action refers to relatively short time frames (i.e. 1 week or 4 weeks vs. 4 months). The findings are discussed in the light of the distinction between intentions and desires and the role that they play in individual decision making. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Individual and shared intentions to participate in a group activity were studied for Koreans and for Americans. For Koreans, individual intentions were functions of attitudes, whereas shared intentions were functions of social identity reactions (i.e., self-categorization, affective commitment, and evaluative significance). For Americans, individual intentions were functions of attitudes and group norms (i.e., internalization), while shared intentions were functions of subjective norms (i.e., compliance) and group norms. The differential effects of personal and social factors on intentions were explained from the viewpoint of social influence theory. Further, cultural background (i.e., an independent-based versus an interdependent-based orientation) was found to moderate these effects.

This study investigated the usefulness of the theory of reasoned action for fast food restaurant patronage decisions. The theory of reasoned action was found to generalize across four samples drawn from the United States ( N = 246), Italy ( N = 123), The People's Republic of China ( N = 264), and Japan ( N =419). However, predictions under the theory of reasoned action were found to vary, depending on the social setting (eating alone or eating with friends) and cultural orientation (independent vs. interdependent). Among other results, subjective norms were found to influence decisions when eating with friends, but not when alone; the effects of attitudes, subjective norms, and past behavior on intentions were greater for Americans than Italians, Chinese, or Japanese; and in general, more explained variance occurred for Western (American, Italian) than Eastern (Chinese, Japanese) cultures.

Do intentions mediate all of the effects of attitudes on behavior? This study shows that discovery of the role of intentions depends on the statistical power of test procedures, the reliability of measures of intentions, and the nature of the processes intervening between intentions and behavior.

Abstract Building on recent research examining the influence of decision making on subsequent goal striving and decision enactment, we consider and elaborate on the mechanisms through which effortful decisions are made, maintained, and enacted. Our proposed framework builds on the Dholakia and Bagozzi ( 2002 ) model, distinguishes between two important types of intentions and desires, and shows that the motivation‐mustering function of the decision process is mediated by goal and implementation desires. In addition to decision processes, the roles of goal feasibility, anticipated emotions, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are also elaborated on. Through a two‐wave field study tracking real decisions and their pursuit by participants, we find empirical support for our model of effortful decision making and enactment. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

New procedures are developed and illustrated for the analysis of experimental data with particular emphasis on MANOVA and MANCOVA designs. The authors begin with one-way designs, including overall tests of significance, step-down analyses, and the use of latent variables. Next they describe a general test of homogeneity and consider a procedure that is applicable even under conditions of heterogeneity. Two-way designs then are derived as special cases of the more general n-way case. Finally, advantages and disadvantages of the new methods are considered.

Despite renewed interest and many advances in methodology in recent years, information systems and organizational researchers face confusing and inconsistent guidance on how to choose amongst, implement, and interpret findings from the use of different measurement procedures. In this article, the related topics of measurement and construct validity are summarized and discussed, with particular focus on formative and reflective indicators and common method bias, and, where relevant, a number of allied issues are considered. The perspective taken is an eclectic and holistic one and attempts to address conceptual and philosophical essentials, raise salient questions, and pose plausible solutions to critical measurement dilemmas occurring in the managerial, behavioral, and social sciences.

A unique theoretical framework for explaining consumer word of mouth and protest behaviors against corporate irresponsibility is developed and tested. Through field surveys with adult consumers, this study demonstrates how consumers' negative moral emotional responses to corporate infractions instigate, in combination with other-regarding virtues, negative word of mouth and protest toward the corporation. Negative moral emotions include contempt, anger, and disgust; whereas other-regarding virtues entail justice, beneficence, equality, and communal cooperation. The results provide scholars and managers with means of improving their understanding and handling of consumers' reactions to corporate irresponsibility.

A structural equation methodology is used to assess the reliability and validity of expectancy-value and semantic differential measures of attitude toward the act of donating blood. Hypotheses as to the internal consistency and the convergent, concurrent, discriminant, predictive, and nomological validities of responses are tested in the context of a quasi-experiment performed on 284 students, faculty, and staff. Semantic differential attitudes are found to exist as unidimensional responses while expectancy-value attitudes are found to occur as multidimensional reactions. However, although both operationalizations achieve convergent, concurrent, discriminant, and predictive validity, the nomological validity of attitude is brought into question. The extent of past behavior and the elapsed time since performance of that behavior appear to offer the greatest explanatory content for subsequent behavioral intentions. Finally, the role of personal and social normative beliefs as copredictors of intentions along with attitude and past behavior is also investigated. The findings are interpreted from attitude, learning, and attribution theory arguments.

Abstract We distinguish between two kinds of future‐oriented emotions (anticipatory and anticipated) and investigate their behavioral effects. Anticipatory emotions are currently experienced due to the prospect of a future event (e.g., hope or fear). Anticipated emotions, on the other hand, are expected to be experienced in the future if certain events do or do not occur (e.g., anticipated joy or regret). We discuss the theoretical differences between the two types of future‐oriented emotions and examine their role in motivating goal‐directed behavior. The results of a longitudinal study ( n = 472) and a separate control group analysis ( n = 340) provide consistent support for the convergent and discriminant validity of positive/negative anticipatory and anticipated emotions and their independent influence on goal‐directed behavior. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This article addresses the question, “How should theories be constructed?” In doing so, two approaches are considered: the classic positivist paradigm and an emerging realist perspective. An attempt is made to develop criteria for representing theories so that they can be more rigorously developed, tested, and evaluated.

Is the link between performance and job satisfaction myth or reality? Does performance influence satisfaction, or does satisfaction influence performance? This age-old managerial problem is examined with a causal modeling methodology to unravel the true relationship.

A new method for representing attitudinal reactions is developed and related to current information integration approaches. Hypotheses are tested about the effects of expectancy-value measures and affect toward the act on intentions and subsequent behavior. The findings lead to a modification and extension of current attitudinal models and their relation to intentions and behavior.

The author presents a model designed to explain the performance, job satisfaction, and other behavioral outcomes experienced by salespeople. By building on the model of man proposed by Lewin and mo...

E XCHANGE has been proposed by a number of marketing scholars as a fundamental framework for viewing marketing. Yet little has been proposed in the way of theory-and even less has materialized in the realm of applications -for using the exchange orientation. As others have emphasized, theory is built on propositions which, in turn, are comprised of sequences and relationships among concepts.1 In order to develop a general theory of marketing based on exchange, one must by necessity begin with well-formed concepts and variables and relate these in causal or logical deductive structures.2 This article has two specific goals. The first objective is to define the core concepts in the exchange paradigm. The second is to introduce the notion of an exchange system as a conceptual framework useful for generating theory in marketing. Overall, the purpose is to define marketing as the process of creating and resolving exchange relationships.

Purpose – This study aims to investigate the nature of brand hate, its antecedents and its outcomes. Design/methodology/approach – The authors conduct two quantitative studies in Europe. In Study 1, a measure of brand hate is developed and its effects are tested on behavioral outcomes. In Study 2, the authors show how brand hate and its behavioral outcomes change depending on the reasons for brand hate. Findings – The study conceptualizes brand hate as a constellation of negative emotions which is significantly associated with different negative behavioral outcomes, including complaining, negative WOM, protest and patronage reduction/cessation. Reasons for brand hate related to corporate wrongdoings and violation of expectations are associated with “attack-like” and “approach-like” strategies, whereas reasons related to taste systems are associated with “avoidance-like” strategies. Research limitations/implications – The study views brand hate as an affective phenomenon occurring at a point in time. Researchers could adopt a wider perspective by looking at the phenomenon of hate as a disposition/sentiment, not merely as an emotion. They could also adopt a longitudinal perspective to understand how brand hate develops over time and relate it to brand love. Practical implications – The authors’ conceptualization of brand hate offers insights to companies about how to resist and prevent brand hate for one’s own brand. Originality/value – The study provides a first conceptualization of brand hate and develops a scale for measuring it. The authors relate this conceptualization and measurement of brand hate to important behavioral outcomes and different types of antecedents.

Recent research has started to show the key role of daily food provision practices in affecting household food waste. Building on and extending these previous contributions, the objective of this paper is to investigate how individuals' everyday practices regarding food (e.g., shopping, cooking, eating, etc.) lead to food waste, and how policy makers and the food industry can implement effective strategies to influence such practices and ultimately help consumers reduce food waste. The research performs three Studies; a critical incident qualitative study (Study 1; N = 514) and a quantitative, survey-based study (Study 2; N = 456) to identify and examine relevant food management behaviors associated with domestic waste. Lastly, findings from a field experiment (Study 3; N = 210) suggest that a specific educational intervention, directed at increasing consumers' perceived skills related to food preparation planning behaviors, reduces domestic food waste. Implications of the research for policy makers and the food industry are discussed.

ABSTRACT Key personal inputs to decision making reside in expectations about whether a purchase or nonpurchase will make one feel better. Integrating several theoretical approaches, this research proposes a holistic framework formed by four kinds of anticipated emotions (AEs) resulting from the crossing of positive‐ or negative‐valenced emotions with action or inaction. Specifically, this research proposes that consumers under a purchase scenario tend to consider positive and negative AEs of both purchase and nonpurchase in their decisions. Research in this area to date has been sparse and focused mostly on AEs with regard to purchase, but not nonpurchase. The results of four studies confirm that AEs influence purchase decisions in a coordinated way depending on their instrumentality, motivating purchase or nonpurchase. AEs also partially mediate the effect of outcome valence on purchase decisions. Taking the status quo bias as a theoretical basis, this work proposes that the amount of information of favorable and unfavorable outcome messages has a greater influence on AEs motivating purchase than AEs motivating nonpurchase. Finally, future research lines are proposed to expand the use of this fourfold framework and more generally to understand the role of forward‐looking emotions in decision processes.

Electrophysiological and hemodynamic studies provide substantial evidence of dissimilar brain responses when people view emotional compared with neutral pictures. This study investigates consumer brain responses underpinning passive viewing of luxury (high emotional value) versus basic (low emotional value) branded products when participants are alone or with another person. Conforming to social facilitation theory and using electroencephalogram methods, the authors recorded event-related potentials while female participants passively viewed pictures of luxury and basic branded products. They examined event-related-potential amplitudes in three time windows, corresponding to the P2 and P3 components and the late positive potential (LPP). Dissimilar brain responses occurred in the Together but not the Alone condition for the P2 and P3 components over visual cortex sites. The LPP amplitude was higher for luxury than for basic branded products, but only in the Together condition, suggesting that the presence of another person magnifies the emotional effect of brand type. Taken together, the results suggest that LPP amplitude during passive viewing of relevant marketing images reflects increased attention allocation and motivational significance, both enhanced by the presence of another person, to stimuli with higher emotional value.

We investigate the effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) on consumer advocacy behaviors toward corporate brands. We focus on the mediating roles of positive moral emotions (awe, gratitude, and elevation) and attitudes. The moderating effects of social justice values and empathy on such mediation processes are further explored. A between-subjects field experiment is used to test our hypotheses on a sample of adult consumers. The results show that both positive moral emotions and attitudes mediate the effect of perceived CSR actions on brand advocacy behaviors; however, social justice values and empathy play a different role in regulating the elicitation of moral emotions and attitudes, depending on the type of CSR actions. We add to extant research on CSR and consumer-brand relationships by showing that CSR actions influence brand advocacy of corporate brands and further providing an integrated theoretical framework to explain psychological mechanisms underlying such an effect.

Marketers strive to create cool brands, but the literature does not offer a blueprint for what “brand coolness” means or what features characterize cool brands. This research uses a mixed-methods approach to conceptualize brand coolness and identify a set of characteristics typically associated with cool brands. Focus groups, depth interviews, and an essay study indicate that cool brands are perceived to be extraordinary, aesthetically appealing, energetic, high status, rebellious, original, authentic, subcultural, iconic, and popular. In nine quantitative studies (surveys and experiments), the authors develop scale items to reliably measure the component characteristics of brand coolness; show that brand coolness influences important outcome variables, including consumers’ attitudes toward, satisfaction with, intentions to talk about, and willingness to pay for the brand; and demonstrate how cool brands change over time. At first, most brands become cool to a small niche, at which point they are perceived to be more subcultural, rebellious, authentic, and original. Over time, some cool brands become adopted by the masses, at which point they are perceived to be more popular and iconic.

The authors develop and test a theory of how public service advertisements function to induce helping responses. Building on Lazarus's general theory of emotion and adaptation, they hypothesize that public service ads designed to reduce the incidence of child abuse stimulate negative emotions; these, in turn, lead to empathic reactions and end with the decision to help. Two field experiments are conducted to test the theory.

Abstract Means‐end chain theory and the laddering methodology were used to derive the goals relevant to consumers for recycling, as well as the interrelations among goals. The importance of the goals and their hierarchical structure were also tested, and their effects on attitudes, subjective norms, and past behavior determined. Data were collected on 133 consumers in a moderate‐size metropolitan community by use of a random digit dialing procedure. The overall framework emerging from the analyses is one where concrete goals lead to more abstract goals, and attitudes and past behavior intervene between goals and intentions in decision making. Nineteen total goals were uncovered, with 15 ultimately found to be salient. The topmost goals in the hierarchy were “promote health/avoid sickness,” “achieve life‐sustaining ends,” and “provide for future generations.” The key lower‐order goals—“avoid filling up landfills,” “reduce waste,” “reuse materials,” and “save the environment”—work through such intermediary goals as “reduce messy trash,” “curtail pollution,” “save resources,” and “save the planet.” Two important terminal goals that were also at intermediate levels in the hierarchy were “save/earn money” and “it's the right thing to do.” © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

It was hypothesized that the degree of intention formation moderates the way in which attitudes influence behavior. Degree of intention formation ― how well-formed intentions are ― was manipulated by facilitating or disrupting the process of intention formation in a field experiment

Journal Article On the Concept of Intentional Social Action in Consumer Behavior Get access Richard P. Bagozzi Richard P. Bagozzi Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 27, Issue 3, December 2000, Pages 388–396, https://doi.org/10.1086/317593 Published: 01 December 2000

This article investigates attitudes that underlie international strategy processes. We propose survey scales of these attitudes and describe tests that support their reliability and validity as measures of constructs—including integration, responsiveness, and coordination—that researchers have used for many years in case analyses of international strategy and organization. We also propose and validate scales to capture the perceived alignment with firms' international objectives of key business policies that affect individuals, including accountability for global results, career opportunity and a globally shared meaning system that informs communication and discussion about change. Our discussion of these tests offers an assessment of how changing patterns of association among the measures over time conform to expectations generated by the case-based empirical literature. We argue that these patterns document a process of organizational learning that can link managers' mind-sets with senior managers' intentions in the course of proactive international strategic change. The analysis relies on survey responses taken in 1992 and 1995 from 370 managers in 13 country affiliates and the head office of a U.S.-based diversified multinational corporation (DMNC). © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Goals play an essential role in the purposive behavior of consumers, but scholars only recently have begun to examine the motivation for goals, their selection and modification, and their pursuit and attainment. One purpose of this article is to outline a conceptual framework for thinking about how goals emerge, influence decision making, and guide consumer choice and action. Another purpose is to integrate classic ideas proposed by consumer researchers with emerging concepts and models proposed by cognitive psychologists, social psychologists, and other social scientists. Finally, the authors’ aim is to present several new ideas on goal setting and goal striving and point out how they can enrich the study and practice of consumer behavior.

Series editor's foreword - List of tables and figures - Acknowledgements - Introduction: overview of consumer behaviour - Attitudes: content, structure, processes - Consumers are emotional, too - From cognitive processes, attitudes, and emotions to action - Attitude change: the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion - Cognitive processes - Glossary - References - Index.

The authors develop and test a theory of how public service advertisements function to induce helping responses. Building on Lazarus's general theory of emotion and adaptation, they hypothesize that public service ads designed to reduce the incidence of child abuse stimulate negative emotions; these, in turn, lead to empathic reactions and end with the decision to help. Two field experiments are conducted to test the theory.

Business Ethics: A European ReviewVolume 16, Issue 2 p. 132-149 Moral courage in the workplace: moving to and from the desire and decision to act Leslie E. Sekerka, Leslie E. Sekerka Professor of Marketing, Stephen M. Ross School of Business & Professor of Social and Administrative Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, MI, USA.Search for more papers by this authorRichard P. Bagozzi, Richard P. Bagozzi Respectively: Assistant Professor, Organizational Behavior and Ethics, Graduate School of Business & Public Policy, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author Leslie E. Sekerka, Leslie E. Sekerka Professor of Marketing, Stephen M. Ross School of Business & Professor of Social and Administrative Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, MI, USA.Search for more papers by this authorRichard P. Bagozzi, Richard P. Bagozzi Respectively: Assistant Professor, Organizational Behavior and Ethics, Graduate School of Business & Public Policy, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 20 March 2007 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8608.2007.00484.xCitations: 150Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Ajzen, I. 1991. ‘The theory of planned behavior. 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This article addresses the assessment of convergent and discriminant validity in personality research. Four approaches are compared and contrasted for the analysis of classic multitrait-multimethod data, where three or more traits are measured with indicators derived from three or more methods. The approaches are the Campbell and Fiske criteria, the confirmatory factor analysis model, the correlated uniqueness model, and the direct product model. Pros and cons of the approaches are pointed out through a reanalysis of data originally collected by Van Tuinen and Ramanaiah, where global self-esteem, social self-esteem, and orderliness were each measured by true–false inventories, multipoint inventories, and simple self-reports. The Discussion considers guidelines for choosing among the approaches and further addresses procedures for nontraditional multitrait–multimethod data.

Abstract Abstract This article reports the results of a field investigation of the self-regulation of body weight goals. In part 1, a longitudinal study is presented of the following processes: predecisional phase → goal intention → preaction-al phase/action initiation → actional phase → action outcome. By use of structural equation models, goal intentions were shown to be a direct function of desires and indirect functions of goal efficacy, subjective norms, and attitudes toward success, failure, and the process of goal pursuit. Goal intentions, in turn, influenced activities of trying to reach one's goal and the initiation of various instrumental acts (i.e., instances of dieting and exercising). The latter behaviour then determined the degree of goal attainment. One hundred and seventeen students participated in this month long study. In part 2, 197 students took part in a study of the bases for goal setting. The cognitive schemas of respondents were elicited and found to consist of 12 superordinate pals arranged in a hierarchical structure of interconnected motives for losing or maintaining one's body weight. Multiple regression was used to test the dependence of attitudes, goal efficacy, subjective norms, and desires on the superordinate goals and linkages amongst goals. Gender differences were explored as well. Key Words: Self-regulationVolitionAttitudesbody weight goalsexercisingdieting.

This paper explores approaches for modeling measurement error in marketing research, including random, method and measure specific sources of error. The following approaches are considered: classic confirmatory factor analysis, second-order models, panel models, additive trait-method models, correlated uniqueness models, covariance components analysis, additive trait-method-measure specific-error models, and the direct product model, where traits and methods interact. Finally, a three-facet multiplicative model is addressed wherein latent variables underlying a phenomenon under investigation are shown to interact with multiple methods and occasions of measurement. The three-facet model is illustrated on a study of consumer attitudes toward losing weight explicitly conducted for this paper.

Abstract Using the analysis of covariance structures methodology, the construct validity of the tripartite classification of attitudes is investigated. Convergent and discriminant validity were achieved for the reanalysis of Ostrom's (1969) data examining attitudes toward the church, while convergent, but not discriminant, validity was attained for the reanalysis of Kothandapani's (1971) data investigating attitudes toward birth control. Reasons for the difference in findings are examined including an analysis of measurement error, methods variance, and trait variance. The results are interpreted from a cognitive consistency and learning theory perspective.

1. Advanced Topics in Structural Equation Models: Richard P. Bagozzi and Youjae yi. 2. Partial Least Squares: Claes Fornell. 3. Multidimensional Scaling: Wayne De Sarbo. 4. Cluster Analyses: Phipps Arabie. 5. Correspondence Analysis: Donna Hoffman. 6. Cojoint Analysis: Jordan Louviere. 7. Multivariate Analysis of Qualitative Data: Jay Magidson and David Rindskopf. 8. Chi--Square Interaction Detection: Hay Magidson. 9. Latent Class Analysis: William Dillan. 10. Research Utilization: Gerald Zaltman.

In this study, the authors investigated how salespeople within an interdependent-based culture (the Philippines) and an independent-based culture (the Netherlands) experience and self-regulate shame. Filipino and Dutch employees were found to experience shame as a consequence of customer actions in largely similar ways (i.e., for both, shame is a painful self-conscious emotion with unique physiological/behavioral urges, self-focused attention, and felt threat to the core self) but have different responses to their felt shame. Specifically, shame is self-regulated dissimilarly in the 2 cultures and leads to opposite effects on performance, namely, enhanced customer relationship building and civic virtue and helping occur for Filipino employees, and diminished sales volume, communication effectiveness, and relationship building transpire for Dutch employees. The positive effects experienced by Filipino employees occur through direct responses to felt shame and as a result of adaptive resource utilization. The negative effects experienced by Dutch employees occur as a result of the dysfunctional (from the firm's point of view) discharge of protective actions.

D. Howell, E. Breivik, and J. B. Wilcox (2007) have presented an important and interesting analysis of formative measurement and have recommended that researchers abandon such an approach in favor of reflective measurement. The author agrees with their recommendations but disagrees with some of the bases for their conclusions. He suggests that although latent variables refer to mental states or mental events that have objective reality, to gain knowledge of the existence of these states or events requires that emphasis be placed on the nature and interpretation of the relationship between latent and manifest variables. This relationship is not a causal one but rather a kind of correspondence rule that contains theoretical, empirical, operational, and logical meanings as part of its content and structure. Implications of the above views are discussed for formative and reflective measurement.

Canonical correlation analysis is commonly considered to be a general model for most parametric bivariate and multivariate statistical methods. Because of its capability for handling multiple criteria and multiple predictors simultaneously, canonical correlation analysis has a great deal of appeal and has also enjoyed increasing application in the behavioral sciences. However, it has also been plagued by several serious shortcomings. In particular, researchers have been unable to determine the statistical significance of individual parameter estimates or to relax assumptions of the canonical model that are inconsistent with theory and/or observed data. As a result, canonical correlation analysis has found more application in exploratory research than in theory testing. This paper illustrates how these problems can be resolved by expressing canonical correlation as a special case of a linear structural relations model.

The validity of a three-factor model of Kirton's Adaption-Innovation Inventory was examined by use of a confirmatory factor analysis. The following psychometric properties were established for both the full 32-item inventory and a 13-item abridgment: reliabilities of the measures of the three factors, convergent validity of measures, discriminant validity of measures across factors, discriminant validity between measures of the factors and measures of involvement, and concurrent validity. In addition, generalizability was demonstrated by comparing psychometric properties across two independent samples of adult consumers: 150 male computer owners and 151 female healthy food purchasers.

We study theory of mind (ToM) and empathic underpinnings of Machiavellianism by use of functional magnetic resonance imaging, where account managers are used as participants in 3 studies. Study 1 finds evidence for activation of the medial prefrontal cortex, left and right temporo-parietal junction, and left and right precuneus regions; all five regions are negatively correlated with Machiavellianism, suggesting that Machiavellians are less facile than non-Machiavellians with ToM skills. Study 2 presents evidence for activation of the left and right pars opercularis, left and right insula, and left precuneus regions; the former four regions of the motor neuron system were positively associated, and the latter negatively associated, with Machiavellianism, implying that Machiavellians resonate more readily with the emotions of others than non-Machiavellians. This is the first study to our knowledge to show a negative correlation between perspective taking and emotional sharing in empathic processes in general and Machiavellianism in particular. Study 3 tests implications of managerial control on both performance and organizational citizenship behaviors, as moderated by Machiavellianism in the field. Our study grounds the functioning of Machiavellianism in organizations in basic neuroscience processes, resolves some long-standing ambiguities with self-report investigations, and points to conditions under which Machiavellianism both inhibits and promotes performance and citizenship behavior.

Bagozzi and Yi (1989) recently introduced new procedures for using structural equation models in experimental designs with lisrel. We extend their research by showing that the structural equation analysis of experimental designs can be accomplished via Wold's partial least squares (pls) approach, which can be used without many of the assumptions necessary for maximum likelihood estimation in lisrel. We show that pls is applicable not only to the basic design, but also to other complex designs. We also identify two restrictive assumptions implicit in Bagozzi and Yi's step-down analysis procedures, and describe a more general approach that can be used even when these assumptions are not met. The proposed procedures are illustrated with Bagozzi and Yi's data, and the conditions suitable for alternative procedures are discussed.

This study examines the adaptive consequences of pride in personal selling and its self-regulation with colleagues and customers. Study 1 investigates the effects of experiencing pride, where two benefits were found. First, pride increases salespersons’ performance-related motivations. Specifically, it promotes the use of adaptive selling strategies, greater effort, and self-efficacy. Second, pride positively affects organizational citizenship behaviors. Study 2 takes an emotion-process point of view and compares excessive pride (hubris) with positive pride. The results show that salespeople are capable of self-regulating the expression of these emotions differently toward colleagues and customers via anticipated feelings of fear, shame, and regret. Salespeople, in other words, are affected by their emotions, but they also are capable of controlling them to their advantage.

A general structural equation model for representing consumer response to innovation is derived and illustrated. The approach both complements and extends an earlier model proposed by Hauser and Urban. Among other benefits, the model is able to take measurement error into account explicitly, to estimate the intercorrelation among exogenous factors if these exist, to yield a unique solution in a statistical sense, and to test complex hypotheses (e.g., systems of relations, simultaneity, feedback) associated with the measurement of consumer responses and their impact on actual choice behavior. In addition, the procedures permit one to model environmental and managerially controllable stimuli as they constrain and influence consumer choice. Limitations of the procedures are discussed and related to existing approaches. Included in the discussion is a development of four generic response models designed to provide a framework for modeling how consumers behave and how managers might better approach the design of products, persuasive appeals, and other controllable factors in the marketing mix.

Abstract My goal is to provide background and perspective on the use and interpretation of structural equation models (SEMs). SEMs are complex procedures with many assumptions, intricacies, and pitfalls. I hope to give a commentary that complements the primers done by Iacobuci and deepen the users' knowledge of the procedures. But I acknowledge that this effort is at best an incomplete introduction into SEMs and cannot do justice to the many issues (and controversies) associated with it.

This paper reports the findings of a study on the effects of corporate social responsibility–brand fit (CSR-brand fit) on service brand loyalty via brand identification in a brand coffee shop industry. The authors also examine how customer participation in a firm’s CSR activities strengthens the formation of service brand loyalty. Using structural equation analysis, the proposed model was tested with 237 actual customers of brand coffee shops. The results indicate that CSR-brand fit strengthens both personal and social brand identification, which in turn increase consumers’ service brand loyalty. The results also indicate that personal identification has a larger influence on service brand loyalty than social identification does. The greater effect for personal versus social identification occurs when customers participate in companies’ CSR activities. This study deepens our understanding of the link between CSR-brand fit and loyalty via personal and social identification. The research is also the first to examine how customers’ active participation in CSR activities influences the process of loyalty formation.

The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the tripartite model of attitudes is investigated. On the basis of a structural equation methodology, evidence is obtained for convergent validity. Moreover, a factor analysis of the attitude measures and measures of perceived extraneous events and personal and social normative beliefs provides evidence for discriminant validity. Finally, evidence for predictive validity based on actual and intended behaviors is found to be mixed. The implications of these findings for research pertaining to the prediction of consumer behavior are discussed.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) research has focused often on the business returns of corporate social initiatives but less on their possible social returns. We study an actual company–consumer partnership CSR initiative promoting ecologically correct and conscious consumption of bottled mineral water. We conduct a survey on adult consumers to test the hypotheses that consumer skepticism toward the company–consumer partnership CSR initiative and the moral emotion of elevation mediate the relationship between company CSR motives perceived by consumers and consumer behavioral responses following this CSR initiative. Favorable consumer behavioral responses, in turn, relate positively to consumer support of other green products. The results provide scholars and managers with means of improving their understanding and handling of company–consumer partnership CSR initiatives.

A general model is derived and illustrated for the analysis of field and laboratory experimental data. The model explicitly provides for the determination of the magnitude and significance of experimental effects and can be used in a diagnostic sense in the interpretation and design of experiments. Comparisons are made with the analysis of variance technique where applicable.

Journal Article Issues in the Application of Covariance Structure Analysis: A Further Comment Get access Richard P. Bagozzi Richard P. Bagozzi Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 9, Issue 4, March 1983, Pages 449–450, https://doi.org/10.1086/208939 Published: 01 March 1983 Article history Received: 01 December 1982 Published: 01 March 1983

Several studies indicate that the cerebellum might play a role in experiencing and/or controlling emphatic emotions, but it remains to be determined whether there is a distinction between positive and negative emotions, and, if so, which specific parts of the cerebellum are involved in these types of emotions. Here, we visualized activations of the cerebellum and extracerebellar regions using high-field fMRI, while we asked participants to observe and imitate images with pictures of human faces expressing different emotional states or with moving geometric shapes as control. The state of the emotions could be positive (happiness and surprise), negative (anger and disgust), or neutral. The positive emotional faces only evoked mild activations of crus 2 in the cerebellum, whereas the negative emotional faces evoked prominent activations in lobules VI and VIIa in its hemispheres and lobules VIII and IX in the vermis. The cerebellar activations associated with negative emotions occurred concomitantly with activations of mirror neuron domains such as the insula and amygdala. These data suggest that the potential role of the cerebellum in control of emotions may be particularly relevant for goal-directed behavior that is required for observing and reacting to another person's (negative) expressions.