Margaret A. Tucker

Carriers of germ-line mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 from families at high risk for cancer have been estimated to have an 85 percent risk of breast cancer. Since the combined frequency of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations exceeds 2 percent among Ashkenazi Jews, we were able to estimate the risk of cancer in a large group of Jewish men and women from the Washington, D.C., area.We collected blood samples from 5318 Jewish subjects who had filled out epidemiologic questionnaires. Carriers of the 185delAG and 5382insC mutations in BRCA1 and the 6174delT mutation in BRCA2 were identified with assays based on the polymerase chain reaction. We estimated the risks of breast and other cancers by comparing the cancer histories of relatives of carriers of the mutations and noncarriers.One hundred twenty carriers of a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation were identified. By the age of 70, the estimated risk of breast cancer among carriers was 56 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 40 to 73 percent); of ovarian cancer, 16 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 6 to 28 percent); and of prostate cancer, 16 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 4 to 30 percent). There were no significant differences in the risk of breast cancer between carriers of BRCA1 mutations and carriers of BRCA2 mutations, and the incidence of colon cancer among the relatives of carriers was not elevated.Over 2 percent of Ashkenazi Jews carry mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 that confer increased risks of breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer. The risks of breast cancer may be overestimated, but they fall well below previous estimates based on subjects from high-risk families.

We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of breast cancer by genotyping 528,173 SNPs in 1,145 postmenopausal women of European ancestry with invasive breast cancer and 1,142 controls. We identified four SNPs in intron 2 of FGFR2 (which encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase and is amplified or overexpressed in some breast cancers) that were highly associated with breast cancer and confirmed this association in 1,776 affected individuals and 2,072 controls from three additional studies. Across the four studies, the association with all four SNPs was highly statistically significant (Ptrend for the most strongly associated SNP (rs1219648) = 1.1 × 10−10; population attributable risk = 16%). Four SNPs at other loci most strongly associated with breast cancer in the initial GWAS were not associated in the replication studies. Our summary results from the GWAS are available online in a form that should speed the identification of additional risk loci.

What constitutes replication of a genotype–phenotype association, and how best can it be achieved? Reviews of the many genetic association studies published recently give pause for thought: there are many false positives and questionable genotype–phenotype associations in the literature. A working group set up by the National Cancer Institute and National Human Genome Research Institute has been tackling the thorny question of what constitutes replication of a genotype–phenotype association, and the initial results are published this week. Guidelines on best practice for reporting initial and replication studies are presented. But it's clear that a series of studies is sometimes necessary to confirm critical genotype–phenotype associations.

We followed our initial genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 527,869 SNPs on 1,172 individuals with prostate cancer and 1,157 controls of European origin-nested in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial prospective study-by testing 26,958 SNPs in four independent studies (total of 3,941 cases and 3,964 controls). In the combined joint analysis, we confirmed three previously reported loci (two independent SNPs at 8q24 and one in HNF1B (formerly known as TCF2 on 17q); P < 10(-10)). In addition, loci on chromosomes 7, 10 (two loci) and 11 were highly significant (between P < 7.31 x 10(-13) and P < 2.14 x 10(-6)). Loci on chromosome 10 include MSMB, which encodes beta-microseminoprotein, a primary constituent of semen and a proposed prostate cancer biomarker, and CTBP2, a gene with antiapoptotic activity; the locus on chromosome 7 is at JAZF1, a transcriptional repressor that is fused by chromosome translocation to SUZ12 in endometrial cancer. Of the nine loci that showed highly suggestive associations (P < 2.5 x 10(-5)), four best fit a recessive model and included candidate susceptibility genes: CPNE3, IL16 and CDH13. Our findings point to multiple loci with moderate effects associated with susceptibility to prostate cancer that, taken together, in the future may predict high risk in select individuals.

We estimated the risk of subsequent bone cancer among 9170 patients who had survived two or more years after the diagnosis of a cancer in childhood. As compared with the general population, the patients had a relative risk of 133 (95 percent confidence interval, 98 to 176) and a mean (+/- SE) 20-year cumulative risk of 2.8 +/- 0.7 percent. Detailed data on treatment were obtained on 64 patients in whom bone cancer developed after childhood cancer. As compared with 209 matched controls who had survived cancer in childhood but who did not have bone cancer later, patients who had had radiation therapy had a 2.7-fold risk (95 percent confidence interval, 1.0 to 7.7) and a sharp dose-response gradient reaching a 40-fold risk after doses to the bone of more than 6000 rad. The relative dose-response effect among patients who had been treated for retinoblastoma resembled that among patients with all other types of initial tumors, although the cumulative risk of bone cancer in the retinoblastoma group was higher. Similar numbers of patients were treated with orthovoltage and megavoltage; the patterns of risk among categories of doses did not differ according to the type of voltage. After adjustment for radiation therapy, treatment with alkylating agents was also linked to bone cancer (relative risk, 4.7; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.0 to 22.3), with the risk increasing as cumulative drug exposure rose. We conclude that both radiotherapy and chemotherapy with alkylating agents for childhood cancer increase the subsequent risk of bone cancer.

A search of the Cancer Family Registry of the National Cancer Institute revealed 24 kindreds with the syndrome of sarcoma, breast carcinoma, and other neoplasms in young patients. Cancer developed in an autosomal dominant pattern in 151 blood relatives, 119 (79%) of whom were affected before 45 years of age. These young patients had a total of 50 bone and soft tissue sarcomas of diverse histological subtypes and 28 breast cancers. Additional features of the syndrome included an excess of brain tumors (14 cases), leukemia (9 cases), and adrenocortical carcinoma (4 cases) before age 45 years. These neoplasms also accounted for 73% of the multiple primary cancers occurring in 15 family members. Six of these patients had second cancers linked to radiotherapy. The diversity of tumor types in this syndrome suggests pathogenetic mechanisms which differ from hereditary cancers arising in single organs or tissues. The syndrome is presently diagnosed on clinical grounds; laboratory markers are needed to identify high-risk individuals and families and to provide insights into susceptibility mechanisms that may be shared by a wide variety of cancers.

<h3>Objective.</h3> —To assess the risk of death from heart disease after Hodgkin's disease therapy. <h3>Design.</h3> —Retrospective study comparing treated patients with a matched general population. <h3>Setting.</h3> —Referral center. <h3>Patients.</h3> —A total of 2232 consecutive Hodgkin's disease patients treated from 1960 through 1991. Follow-up averaged 9.5 years. <h3>Main Outcome Measures.</h3> —Relative risks (RRs), the ratio of the observed to the expected cases with 95% confidence intervals (Cls), χ tests for trends, and Kaplan-Meier actuarial risks. <h3>Results.</h3> —Of the 2232 patients, 88 (3.9%) died of heart disease, 55 from acute myocardial infarction and 33 from other cardiac diseases, including congestive heart failure, radiation pericarditis or pancarditis, cardiomyopathy, or valvular heart disease. The RR for cardiac death was 3.1 (Cl, 2.4 to 3.7). Mediastinal radiation of 30 Gy or less (n=385 patients) did not increase risk; above 30 Gy (n=1830), RR was 3.5 (Cl, 2.7 to 4.3). Blocking to limit cardiac exposure reduced the RR for other cardiac diseases from 5.3 (Cl, 3.1 to 7.5) to 1.4 (Cl, 0.6 to 2.9), but not acute myocardial infarction (RR, 3.7 vs 3.4). The RRs increased with duration after treatment (trend in acute myocardial infarction,<i>P</i>=.02; in other cardiac diseases,<i>P</i>=.004). The RR for acute myocardial infarction was highest after irradiation before 20 years of age and decreased with increasing age at treatment (<i>P</i>&lt;.0001 for trend). <h3>Conclusions.</h3> —Mediastinal irradiation for Hodgkin's disease increases the risk of subsequent death from heart disease. Risk increased with high mediastinal doses, minimal protective cardiac blocking, young age at irradiation, and increasing duration of follow-up. (JAMA. 1993:270:1949-1955)

A gene on chromosome 9p, p16INK4, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cutaneous malignant melanoma in 19 melanoma-prone families. In 10 of these kindreds mutations that impaired the function of the p16INK4 protein (p16M alleles) cosegregated with the disease. By contrast, in the other nine kindreds the mutation did not alter the function of p16INK4 (p16W alleles). We looked for differences in clinical and genetic epidemiologic features in these two groups of families.We compared the median ages at diagnosis of melanoma, number of melanomas, thickness of the tumors, and number of nevi in the kindreds. We estimated prospectively the risks of melanoma or other cancers in families followed for 6 to 18 years and the risks of other cancers since 1925 (the entire period) by comparing the number of cancer cases observed with the number expected.The risk of invasive melanoma was increased by a factor of 75 in kindreds with p16M alleles and a factor of 38 in kindreds with p16W alleles. Although this difference was not significant (P = 0.14), there was a striking difference in the risk of other tumors. In kindreds with p16M alleles, the risk of pancreatic cancer was increased by a factor of 13 in the prospective period (2 cases observed, 0.15 expected; standardized incidence ratio, 13.1; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.5 to 47.4) and by a factor of 22 in the entire period (7 cases observed, 0.32 expected; standardized incidence ratio, 21.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 8.7 to 44.8). In contrast, we found no cases of pancreatic cancer in kindred with p16W alleles.The development of pancreatic cancer in kindreds prone to melanoma may require a p16M mutation. Genetic factors, such as the kind of mutation found in p16INK4, may explain the inconsistent occurrence of other cancers in these kindreds.

We conducted a three-stage genome-wide association study (GWAS) of breast cancer in 9,770 cases and 10,799 controls in the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) initiative. In stage 1, we genotyped 528,173 SNPs in 1,145 cases of invasive breast cancer and 1,142 controls. In stage 2, we analyzed 24,909 top SNPs in 4,547 cases and 4,434 controls. In stage 3, we investigated 21 loci in 4,078 cases and 5,223 controls. Two new loci achieved genome-wide significance. A pericentromeric SNP on chromosome 1p11.2 (rs11249433; P = 6.74 x 10(-10) adjusted genotype test, 2 degrees of freedom) resides in a large linkage disequilibrium block neighboring NOTCH2 and FCGR1B; this signal was stronger for estrogen-receptor-positive tumors. A second SNP on chromosome 14q24.1 (rs999737; P = 1.74 x 10(-7)) localizes to RAD51L1, a gene in the homologous recombination DNA repair pathway. We also confirmed associations with loci on chromosomes 2q35, 5p12, 5q11.2, 8q24, 10q26 and 16q12.1.

Most studies of survivors of Hodgkin's disease have shown a low risk for subsequent breast cancer, even though much lower doses of radiation than those used for Hodgkin's disease have been shown to induce breast cancer in other settings.This study quantifies the risk of breast cancer following Hodgkin's disease treatment according to age at treatment and type of treatment.To evaluate the risk of breast cancer from irradiation, we reviewed records of 885 women treated for Hodgkin's disease between 1961 and 1990 (mean follow-up, 10 years). Risks for breast cancer incidence and mortality were calculated by comparison with expected rates for a general female population matched by age and race.Twenty-five patients have developed invasive breast cancer, yielding a relative risk (RR) of 4.1 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.5-5.7). An additional patient developed multifocal carcinoma in situ. Age at irradiation strongly influenced risk: RR was 136 for women treated before 15 years of age (95% CI = 34-371). RR declined with age at irradiation (P for trend < .0001), but the elevation remained statistically significant for subjects less than 30 years old at the time of irradiation (for those 15-24, RR = 19 [95% CI = 10.3-32]; for those 24-29, RR = 7 [95% CI = 3.2-14.4]). In women above 30 years of age, the risk was not elevated (RR = 0.7; 95% CI = 0.2-1.8). Risk of breast cancer increased significantly with time since treatment (P for trend < .0001). The RR was 2.0 (95% CI = 1.0-3.5) with follow-up under 15 years and 13.6 (95% CI = 7.9-18.2) with follow-up equal to or exceeding 15 years. The addition of mechlorethamine, vincristine, procarbazine, and prednisone chemotherapy to irradiation increased the risk within the first 15 years. Most breast cancers (22 of 26) arose within or at the margin of the radiation field and were infiltrating ductal carcinomas. Stage distribution and outcome suggest that the increased incidence was not solely attributable to vigilant screening. RR of death from breast cancer was 5.1 (95% CI = 2.2-10.0).Women treated for Hodgkin's disease with radiation before 30 years of age are at markedly increased risk for breast cancer, with risk increasing dramatically more than 15 years after therapy.The high RR for development of breast cancer in women exposed to therapeutic radiation under 30 years of age raises important issues about optimal treatment strategies for patients with Hodgkin's disease, breast cancer, and other cancers.

<h3>Objective</h3> To examine incidence and survival patterns of acral lentiginous melanoma (ALM) in the United States. <h3>Design</h3> Population-based registry study. We used the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program of the National Cancer Institute to evaluate data from 17 population-based cancer registries from 1986 to 2005. <h3>Participants</h3> A total 1413 subjects with histologically confirmed cases of ALM. <h3>Main Outcome Measure</h3> Incidence and survival patterns of patients with ALM. <h3>Results</h3> The age-adjusted incidence rate of ALM overall was 1.8 per million person-years. The proportion of ALM among all melanoma subtypes was greatest in blacks (36%). Acral lentiginous melanoma had 5- and 10-year melanoma-specific survival rates of 80.3% and 67.5%, respectively, which were less than those for all cutaneous malignant melanomas overall (91.3% and 87.5%, respectively;<i>P</i> &lt; .001). The ALM 5- and 10-year melanoma-specific survival rates were highest in non-Hispanic whites (82.6% and 69.4%), intermediate in blacks (77.2% and 71.5%), and lowest in Hispanic whites (72.8% and 57.3%) and Asian/Pacific Islanders (70.2% and 54.1%). Acral lentiginous melanoma thickness and stage correlated with survival according to sex and in the different racial groups. <h3>Conclusions</h3> Population-based data showed that ALM is a rare melanoma subtype, although its proportion among all melanomas is higher in people of color. It is associated with a worse prognosis than cutaneous malignant melanoma overall. Hispanic whites and Asian/Pacific Islanders have worse survival rates than other groups, and factors such as increased tumor thickness and more advanced stage at presentation are the most likely explanations.

Christian Abnet and colleagues report genome-wide association studies for gastric adenocarcinoma and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in a Chinese population. They identified a new shared risk locus in the PLCE1 gene at 10q23. We conducted a genome-wide association study of gastric cancer and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) in ethnic Chinese subjects in which we genotyped 551,152 SNPs. We report a combined analysis of 2,240 gastric cancer cases, 2,115 ESCC cases and 3,302 controls drawn from five studies. In logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex and study, multiple variants at 10q23 had genome-wide significance for gastric cancer and ESCC independently. A notable signal was rs2274223, a nonsynonymous SNP located in PLCE1, for gastric cancer (P = 8.40 × 10−9; per-allele odds ratio (OR) = 1.31) and ESCC (P = 3.85 × 10−9; OR = 1.34). The association with gastric cancer differed by anatomic subsite. For tumors in the cardia the association was stronger (P = 4.19 × 10−15; OR = 1.57), and for those in the noncardia stomach it was absent (P = 0.44; OR = 1.05). Our findings at 10q23 could provide insight into the high incidence of both cancers in China.

Three genetic loci for lung cancer risk have been identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but inherited susceptibility to specific histologic types of lung cancer is not well established. We conducted a GWAS of lung cancer and its major histologic types, genotyping 515,922 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 5739 lung cancer cases and 5848 controls from one population-based case-control study and three cohort studies. Results were combined with summary data from ten additional studies, for a total of 13,300 cases and 19,666 controls of European descent. Four studies also provided histology data for replication, resulting in 3333 adenocarcinomas (AD), 2589 squamous cell carcinomas (SQ), and 1418 small cell carcinomas (SC). In analyses by histology, rs2736100 (TERT), on chromosome 5p15.33, was associated with risk of adenocarcinoma (odds ratio [OR] = 1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13–1.33, p = 3.02 × 10−7), but not with other histologic types (OR = 1.01, p = 0.84 and OR = 1.00, p = 0.93 for SQ and SC, respectively). This finding was confirmed in each replication study and overall meta-analysis (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.17–1.31, p = 3.74 × 10−14 for AD; OR = 0.99, p = 0.69 and OR = 0.97, p = 0.48 for SQ and SC, respectively). Other previously reported association signals on 15q25 and 6p21 were also refined, but no additional loci reached genome-wide significance. In conclusion, a lung cancer GWAS identified a distinct hereditary contribution to adenocarcinoma. Three genetic loci for lung cancer risk have been identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but inherited susceptibility to specific histologic types of lung cancer is not well established. We conducted a GWAS of lung cancer and its major histologic types, genotyping 515,922 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 5739 lung cancer cases and 5848 controls from one population-based case-control study and three cohort studies. Results were combined with summary data from ten additional studies, for a total of 13,300 cases and 19,666 controls of European descent. Four studies also provided histology data for replication, resulting in 3333 adenocarcinomas (AD), 2589 squamous cell carcinomas (SQ), and 1418 small cell carcinomas (SC). In analyses by histology, rs2736100 (TERT), on chromosome 5p15.33, was associated with risk of adenocarcinoma (odds ratio [OR] = 1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13–1.33, p = 3.02 × 10−7), but not with other histologic types (OR = 1.01, p = 0.84 and OR = 1.00, p = 0.93 for SQ and SC, respectively). This finding was confirmed in each replication study and overall meta-analysis (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.17–1.31, p = 3.74 × 10−14 for AD; OR = 0.99, p = 0.69 and OR = 0.97, p = 0.48 for SQ and SC, respectively). Other previously reported association signals on 15q25 and 6p21 were also refined, but no additional loci reached genome-wide significance. In conclusion, a lung cancer GWAS identified a distinct hereditary contribution to adenocarcinoma. Recently, three genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of lung cancer and subsequent pooled GWAS analyses identified inherited susceptibility variants on chromosome 15q25,1Hung R.J. McKay J.D. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Hashibe M. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. Rudnai P. et al.A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25.Nature. 2008; 452: 633-637Crossref PubMed Scopus (985) Google Scholar, 2Amos C.I. Wu X. Broderick P. Gorlov I.P. Gu J. Eisen T. Dong Q. Zhang Q. Gu X. Vijayakrishnan J. et al.Genome-wide association scan of tag SNPs identifies a susceptibility locus for lung cancer at 15q25.1.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 616-622Crossref PubMed Scopus (979) Google Scholar, 3Thorgeirsson T.E. Geller F. Sulem P. Rafnar T. Wiste A. Magnusson K.P. Manolescu A. Thorleifsson G. Stefansson H. Ingason A. et al.A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease.Nature. 2008; 452: 638-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (1163) Google Scholar 5p15,4McKay J.D. Hung R.J. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Chabrier A. Byrnes G. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. et al.Lung cancer susceptibility locus at 5p15.33.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1404-1406Crossref PubMed Scopus (450) Google Scholar, 5Wang Y. Broderick P. Webb E. Wu X. Vijayakrishnan J. Matakidou A. Qureshi M. Dong Q. Gu X. Chen W.V. et al.Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1407-1409Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar, 6Rafnar T. Sulem P. Stacey S.N. Geller F. Gudmundsson J. Sigurdsson A. Jakobsdottir M. Helgadottir H. Thorlacius S. Aben K.K. et al.Sequence variants at the TERT-CLPTM1L locus associate with many cancer types.Nat. Genet. 2009; 41: 221-227Crossref PubMed Scopus (479) Google Scholar and 6p21.5Wang Y. Broderick P. Webb E. Wu X. Vijayakrishnan J. Matakidou A. Qureshi M. Dong Q. Gu X. Chen W.V. et al.Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1407-1409Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar Lung cancer is classified into two main histologic groups: small cell lung cancer (SC) and non-small cell lung cancer; the latter includes adenocarcinoma (AD) and squamous cell carcinoma (SQ), along with rarer subtypes. Worldwide, adenocarcinoma is the most frequently identified histologic type, and the relative proportion of lung cancer due to this histology has steadily risen. Demographic, etiologic, clinical, and molecular characteristics of the lung cancer subtypes have been reported.7Gabrielson E. Worldwide trends in lung cancer pathology.Respirology. 2006; 11: 533-538Crossref PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar Although family history of lung cancer has been associated with histologic subtypes,8Gao Y. Goldstein A.M. Consonni D. Pesatori A.C. Wacholder S. Tucker M.A. Caporaso N.E. Goldin L. Landi M.T. Family history of cancer and nonmalignant lung diseases as risk factors for lung cancer.Int. J. Cancer. 2009; 125: 146-152Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar, 9Li X. Hemminki K. Inherited predisposition to early onset lung cancer according to histological type.Int. J. Cancer. 2004; 112: 451-457Crossref PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar, 10Ambrosone C.B. Rao U. Michalek A.M. Cummings K.M. Mettlin C.J. Lung cancer histologic types and family history of cancer. Analysis of histologic subtypes of 872 patients with primary lung cancer.Cancer. 1993; 72: 1192-1198Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar, 11Sellers T.A. Elston R.C. Atwood L.D. Rothschild H. Lung cancer histologic type and family history of cancer.Cancer. 1992; 69: 86-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar the inherited susceptibility factors that affect specific histologies are unknown. We conducted a GWAS in 5739 lung cancer cases and 5848 controls (National Cancer Institute [NCI] GWAS) to search for overall susceptibility variants and variants associated with specific histologic types and smoking status. We also conducted a meta-analysis of the NCI GWAS with summary data from ten additional studies, for a total of 13,300 primary lung cancer cases and 19,666 controls, all of European descent. Four of the ten studies provided information on histology for replication analyses; 3333 AD, 2589 SQ, and 1418 SC cases were analyzed overall. The 11,587 subjects in the NCI GWAS were drawn from one population-based case-control study and three cohort studies (Table 1); specifically: the Environment and Genetics in Lung Cancer Etiology (EAGLE),12Landi M.T. Consonni D. Rotunno M. Bergen A.W. Goldstein A.M. Lubin J.H. Goldin L. Alavanja M. Morgan G. Subar A.F. et al.Environment And Genetics in Lung cancer Etiology (EAGLE) study: an integrative population-based case-control study of lung cancer.BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: e203Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar a population-based case-control study including 2100 primary lung cancer cases and 2120 healthy controls enrolled in Italy between 2002 and 2005; the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC),13The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study GroupThe alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene lung cancer prevention study: design, methods, participant characteristics, and compliance.Ann. Epidemiol. 1994; 4: 1-10Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (475) Google Scholar a randomized primary prevention trial including 29,133 male smokers enrolled in Finland between 1985 and 1993; the Prostate, Lung, Colon, Ovary Screening Trial (PLCO),14Hayes R.B. Sigurdson A. Moore L. Peters U. Huang W.Y. Pinsky P. Reding D. Gelmann E.P. Rothman N. Pfeiffer R.M. et al.Methods for etiologic and early marker investigations in the PLCO trial.Mutat. Res. 2005; 592: 147-154Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar a randomized trial including 150,000 individuals enrolled in ten U.S. study centers between 1992 and 2001; and the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort (CPS-II),15Calle E.E. Rodriguez C. Jacobs E.J. Almon M.L. Chao A. McCullough M.L. Feigelson H.S. Thun M.J. The American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort: rationale, study design, and baseline characteristics.Cancer. 2002; 94: 2490-2501Crossref PubMed Scopus (300) Google Scholar including over 183,000 subjects enrolled by the American Cancer Society between 1992 and 2001 across all U.S. states. Analyses stratified by histology in the NCI GWAS included 1730 AD cases, 1400 SQ cases, 678 SC cases, and groups of other histological types or of mixed histologies. These studies were approved by the individual institutional review boards of each location, and each subject gave his or her informed consent for participation.Table 1Studies Included in the Genome-wide Association Analysis of Lung CancerNo. of SubjectsStudyCasesControlsLocationStudy DesignIllumina HumanHap ChipsNCI GWASEAGLEaEnvironment and Genetics in Lung Cancer Etiology study.19201979ItalyPopulation-based case-control550K, 610QUADATBCbAlpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention study.17321271FinlandCohort550K, 610QUADPLCOcProstate, Lung, Colon, Ovary screening trial.1390192410 US CentersCohort–Cancer Prevention Trial317K+240S, 550K, 610QUADCPS-IIdCancer Prevention Study II nutrition cohort.697674All US StatesCohort550K, 610QUAD, 1MTOTAL57395848Meta-AnalysisUK19781438UKHospital-based cases, birth cohort controls550KCentral Europe18372432Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, Poland, Russia, Checz Rep.Multicenter hospital-based case-control317K, 370DuoTexas11541137Texas, USAHospital-based case-control317KDeCODE Genetics7196030IcelandPopulation-based case-control317K, 370DuoHGF GermanyeHelmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren Lung Cancer GWAS.506480GermanyPopulation-based case-control (<50 years)550KCARETfCarotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial cohort.3973936 US CentersCancer Prevention Trial370DuoHUNT2/TromsogNorth Trondelag Health Study 2 / Tromsø IV.394382NorwayPopulation-based case-control370DuoCanada332505Greater Toronto areaHospital-based case-control317KFrance135146Paris and Caen areasHospital-based case-control370DuoEstonia109874EstoniaHospital-based case-control317K, 370DuoTOTAL756113818Grand Total1330019666a Environment and Genetics in Lung Cancer Etiology study.b Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention study.c Prostate, Lung, Colon, Ovary screening trial.d Cancer Prevention Study II nutrition cohort.e Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren Lung Cancer GWAS.f Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial cohort.g North Trondelag Health Study 2 / Tromsø IV. Open table in a new tab The meta-analysis included all of the NCI GWAS data plus summary data from ten additional studies contributing 7561 cases and 13,818 controls (Table 1): (1) the UK study from the Institute for Cancer Research,5Wang Y. Broderick P. Webb E. Wu X. Vijayakrishnan J. Matakidou A. Qureshi M. Dong Q. Gu X. Chen W.V. et al.Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1407-1409Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar including lung cancer cases from the Genetic Lung Cancer Predisposition Study established in 1999 and controls from the 1958 birth cohort;16Power C. Elliott J. Cohort profile: 1958 British birth cohort (National Child Development Study).Int. J. Epidemiol. 2006; 35: 34-41Crossref PubMed Scopus (628) Google Scholar (2) the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) study in central Europe,1Hung R.J. McKay J.D. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Hashibe M. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. Rudnai P. et al.A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25.Nature. 2008; 452: 633-637Crossref PubMed Scopus (985) Google Scholar a hospital-based case-control study conducted in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russia, and Slovakia between 1998 and 2002; (3) the Texas case-control study,2Amos C.I. Wu X. Broderick P. Gorlov I.P. Gu J. Eisen T. Dong Q. Zhang Q. Gu X. Vijayakrishnan J. et al.Genome-wide association scan of tag SNPs identifies a susceptibility locus for lung cancer at 15q25.1.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 616-622Crossref PubMed Scopus (979) Google Scholar including cases newly diagnosed at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center since 1991 and controls from the Kelsey-Seybold clinics (the GWAS included only smokers and cases with non-small cell lung cancer); (4) the population-based case-control study from deCODE Genetics in Iceland,3Thorgeirsson T.E. Geller F. Sulem P. Rafnar T. Wiste A. Magnusson K.P. Manolescu A. Thorleifsson G. Stefansson H. Ingason A. et al.A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease.Nature. 2008; 452: 638-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (1163) Google Scholar including all Icelandic subjects originally recruited for different genetic studies between 1996 and 2007 at deCODE Genetics and lung cancer cases recruited from the Icelandic Cancer Registry since 1998; (5) the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren (HGF) lung cancer GWA study,17Sauter W. Rosenberger A. Beckmann L. Kropp S. Mittelstrass K. Timofeeva M. Wolke G. Steinwachs A. Scheiner D. Meese E. et al.Matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) is associated with early-onset lung cancer.Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2008; 17: 1127-1135Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar including lung cancer cases diagnosed at ≤ 50 years from the LUng Cancer in the Young (LUCY) study, a multicenter study within 31 German hospitals, and the Heidelberg lung cancer study, a hospital-based case-control study conducted by the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) (controls were selected from the Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg [KORA]); (6) the Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET) cohort,18Omenn G.S. Goodman G. Thornquist M. Grizzle J. Rosenstock L. Barnhart S. Balmes J. Cherniack M.G. Cullen M.R. Glass A. et al.The beta-carotene and retinol efficacy trial (CARET) for chemoprevention of lung cancer in high risk populations: smokers and asbestos-exposed workers.Cancer Res. 1994; 54: 2038s-2043sPubMed Google Scholar including smokers with a smoking history of at least 20 pack-years enrolled in six U.S. centers between 1983 and 1994; (7) the HUNT2/Tromso study, including lung cancer cases and controls from the North Trondelag Health Study (HUNT 2),19Holmen J.M.K. Kruger O. Langhammer A. Lingaas Holmen T. Bratberg G.H. The Nord-Trøndelag Health Study 1995-97 (HUNT 2): Objectives, contents, methods and participation.Norweg. J. Epidemiol. 2003; 13: 19-32Google Scholar a population-based study conducted between 1995 and 1997 in North Trondelag County, and the Tromsø IV population-based study conducted in Tromsø County between 1994 and 1995; 8) the lung cancer study from Canada,1Hung R.J. McKay J.D. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Hashibe M. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. Rudnai P. et al.A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25.Nature. 2008; 452: 633-637Crossref PubMed Scopus (985) Google Scholar including lung cancer cases recruited at the University of Toronto and the Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute between 1997 and 2002 and GWAS controls randomly selected from family medicine clinics; 9) the lung cancer study from France,20Feyler A. Voho A. Bouchardy C. Kuokkanen K. Dayer P. Hirvonen A. Benhamou S. Point: myeloperoxidase –463G–> a polymorphism and lung cancer risk.Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2002; 11: 1550-1554PubMed Google Scholar a hospital-based case-control study including smoking cases and controls recruited between 1988 and 1992 in ten French hospitals; and 10) the lung cancer study from Estonia, a hospital-based case-control study including lung cancer cases enrolled between 2002 and 2006 in Estonian hospitals and controls randomly selected from the Estonian Genome Project population-based cohort.21Nelis M. Esko T. Magi R. Zimprich F. Zimprich A. Toncheva D. Karachanak S. Pischakova T. Balascak I. Peltonen L. et al.Genetic structure of Europeans: a view from the North-East.PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e5472Crossref PubMed Scopus (227) Google Scholar Three studies (the Texas,2Amos C.I. Wu X. Broderick P. Gorlov I.P. Gu J. Eisen T. Dong Q. Zhang Q. Gu X. Vijayakrishnan J. et al.Genome-wide association scan of tag SNPs identifies a susceptibility locus for lung cancer at 15q25.1.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 616-622Crossref PubMed Scopus (979) Google Scholar deCODE,3Thorgeirsson T.E. Geller F. Sulem P. Rafnar T. Wiste A. Magnusson K.P. Manolescu A. Thorleifsson G. Stefansson H. Ingason A. et al.A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease.Nature. 2008; 452: 638-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (1163) Google Scholar and HGF German17Sauter W. Rosenberger A. Beckmann L. Kropp S. Mittelstrass K. Timofeeva M. Wolke G. Steinwachs A. Scheiner D. Meese E. et al.Matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) is associated with early-onset lung cancer.Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2008; 17: 1127-1135Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar studies) also contributed summary data from genome-wide scans stratified by histology, including 1138 AD, 578 SQ, and 210 SC cases. The UK study5Wang Y. Broderick P. Webb E. Wu X. Vijayakrishnan J. Matakidou A. Qureshi M. Dong Q. Gu X. Chen W.V. et al.Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1407-1409Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar contributed data on the top single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of chromosome 5p15.33 by histology. These four studies contributed 1603 AD, 1189 SQ, and 740 SC cases to the meta-analysis by histology for this locus. In both the NCI GWAS and the studies in the meta-analysis, the lung cancer diagnosis was based on clinical criteria and confirmed by pathology reports from surgery, biopsy, or cytology samples in approximately 95% of cases and on clinical history and imaging for the remaining 5%. Tumor histology was coded according to the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology. In analyses stratified by histology, only adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and small cell carcinoma cases were included. All mixed subtypes or other histologies were excluded. Overall, between 10% and 50% of all diagnoses from the NCI GWAS were centrally reviewed by expert lung pathologists from NCI. The NCI GWAS scan was conducted at two institutions: the Center for Inherited Disease Research (CIDR), which genotyped all EAGLE and 1675 PLCO subjects, and the Core Genotyping Facility (CGF), NCI, which genotyped ATBC, CPS-II, and the remaining PLCO subjects. Controls from the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) prostate cancer scan22Yeager M. Orr N. Hayes R.B. Jacobs K.B. Kraft P. Wacholder S. Minichiello M.J. Fearnhead P. Yu K. Chatterjee N. et al.Genome-wide association study of prostate cancer identifies a second risk locus at 8q24.Nat. Genet. 2007; 39: 645-649Crossref PubMed Scopus (908) Google Scholar were also included. EAGLE samples and 1675 PLCO samples were genotyped at CIDR, as part of the Gene Environment Association Studies Initiative (GENEVA) funded through the National Human Genome Research Institute, with the use of Illumina HumanHap550v3_B BeadChips (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). Data were released for 5620 of 5727 (98%) samples, including 32 blind duplicates (concordance was 99.993%); these were genotyped with 124 HapMap controls (66 CEU; 58 YRI). Allele cluster definitions per SNP were determined with the use of the Illumina BeadStudio Genotyping Module version 3.1.14 and the combined intensity data from 95% of the samples. The resulting cluster definitions were used on all samples. Genotypes were not called if the quality threshold (Gencall score) was below 0.15. Genotypes were released by CIDR for 560,505 (99.83% of attempted) SNPs. Genotypes were not released for SNPs not called by BeadStudio or for those with call rates less than 85%, more than one HapMap replicate error, more than a 3% (autosomal) or 5% (X chromosome) difference in call rate between genders, or more than 0.5% male AB frequency for the X chromosome. The mean non-Y chromosome SNP call rate and mean sample call rate were each 99.8% for the CIDR data set. Similar procedures were followed at CGF for the ATBC, CPSII, and PLCO cohorts with the use of three Illumina platforms: the HumanHap550K, the HumanHap610, and HumanHap 1 Million chips. All genotyped samples passed quality control metrics at CGF. After removal of assay and locus as a result of low completion rates, genotypes for each sample that appeared in duplicate were merged to form consensus genotypes for each subject. There were 12,111 study subjects available for subsequent analysis. Table S1, available online, shows the distribution of subjects by study and phenotype after application of quality control (QC) metrics. Figure S1 shows the cluster plot for the most notable SNP, rs2736100. A total of 221 pairs of samples were identified with >70% genotype concordance rate. Among them, 189 pairs were expected duplicates and had genotype concordance rates > 99.9%. There were 12 unexpected duplicates (cross or within studies) with >99.97% concordance rates. We evaluated the pairwise concordance on the basis of the entire set and observed 40 pairs of subjects with over 60% of concordant genotypes (genotype concordance > 60%). Exclusions are listed in Table S2. Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg proportions (HWP) were assessed in controls. Expected and observed p values were calculated with the use of the uniform distribution for all loci and the exact test, respectively. Autosomal SNPs with minor allele frequencies (MAFs) >5% and completion rates >95% were included. Deviation from HWP was minimal, and only loci with extremely low p values (p < 10−7) for each QC group were excluded from further analyses (Table S3). A quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plot of the p values per study is shown in Figure S2. To assess population structure, we estimated imputed continental ancestry by using the STRUCTURE program,23Pritchard J.K. Stephens M. Donnelly P. Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data.Genetics. 2000; 155: 945-959PubMed Google Scholar with a set of 12,898 autosomal SNPs with low local background linkage disequilibrium (LD) (pairwise r2 < 0.004 measured in the population of European ancestry for any pair of SNPs less than 500 kb apart)24Yu K. Wang Z. Li Q. Wacholder S. Hunter D.J. Hoover R.N. Chanock S. Thomas G. Population substructure and control selection in genome-wide association studies.PLoS ONE. 2008; 3: e2551Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar (Figure S3). Genotypes from the three HapMap populations (Build 22 for HapMap II with MAF > 5%)25The International HapMap ProjectNature. 2003; 426: 789-796Crossref PubMed Scopus (4688) Google Scholar were used as reference populations. The number of inferred clusters (“K” parameter) was set to 3 for CEU, YRI, and JPT+CHB samples representing populations of European, African, and Asian origin, respectively. Eighteen subjects were detected as having less than 80% European ancestry and were excluded. Principal component analysis (PCA) for each study group (excluding subjects with less than 80% European ancestry, unexpected duplicates, and potential relative pairs) was performed with the same informative 12,898 SNPs with the use of the EIGENSTRAT program26Price A.L. Patterson N.J. Plenge R.M. Weinblatt M.E. Shadick N.A. Reich D. Principal components analysis corrects for stratification in genome-wide association studies.Nat. Genet. 2006; 38: 904-909Crossref PubMed Scopus (6171) Google Scholar (Figures S4A–S4D). After adjustment for significant principal components (PCs) in each study, comparison of observed and expected distributions showed no evidence for large-scale inflation of the association test statistics (inflation factor λ = 1.03, 103, 1.01, and 1.01 in EAGLE, PLCO, CPS-II, and ATBC, respectively), excluding the possibility of significant hidden population substructure. Q-Q plots for each NCI study are shown in Figures S5A–S5D. After excluding 183 subjects for the reasons described above (summarized in Table S2) and 337 subjects with incomplete phenotype data, we report analyses on 515,922 SNPs in 5739 lung cancer cases and 5848 controls (NCI GWAS, Table 1). Comparable QC procedures were conducted at each institution that provided summary results for the meta-analysis.1Hung R.J. McKay J.D. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Hashibe M. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. Rudnai P. et al.A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25.Nature. 2008; 452: 633-637Crossref PubMed Scopus (985) Google Scholar, 2Amos C.I. Wu X. Broderick P. Gorlov I.P. Gu J. Eisen T. Dong Q. Zhang Q. Gu X. Vijayakrishnan J. et al.Genome-wide association scan of tag SNPs identifies a susceptibility locus for lung cancer at 15q25.1.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 616-622Crossref PubMed Scopus (979) Google Scholar, 3Thorgeirsson T.E. Geller F. Sulem P. Rafnar T. Wiste A. Magnusson K.P. Manolescu A. Thorleifsson G. Stefansson H. Ingason A. et al.A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease.Nature. 2008; 452: 638-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (1163) Google Scholar, 4McKay J.D. Hung R.J. Gaborieau V. Boffetta P. Chabrier A. Byrnes G. Zaridze D. Mukeria A. Szeszenia-Dabrowska N. Lissowska J. et al.Lung cancer susceptibility locus at 5p15.33.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1404-1406Crossref PubMed Scopus (450) Google Scholar, 5Wang Y. Broderick P. Webb E. Wu X. Vijayakrishnan J. Matakidou A. Qureshi M. Dong Q. Gu X. Chen W.V. et al.Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk.Nat. Genet. 2008; 40: 1407-1409Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar For the genome-wide analysis of the NCI GWAS, we used unconditional logistic regression to derive a per-allele odds ratio (OR) and an associated 1 degree of freedom (df) association test adjusted for age in five-year intervals (defined as age at diagnosis or interview for the case-control study and as baseline age for cohort studies), gender, study (EAGLE, PLCO, ATBC, ACS), and four PCs for population stratification within studies (see description of PC analysis below). In additional analyses, we adjusted for smoking status (current, former, never), cigarettes smoked per day (≤ 10, 11–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41+), duration in 10 yr intervals, and number of years since quitting (1–5, 6–10, 11–20, 21–30, 30+) for former smokers (subjects who quit smoking at least 6 mo before participating in the study). The analyses with single and multiple SNPs stratified by histology, smoking status, and decade of birth were conducted with the use of the same models. Tests for interaction between a SNP (coded as a continuous variable) and smoking status or birth decade (coded with the use of dummy variables) were performed with Wald tests with the use of multiple dfs. For the meta-analysis with other studies, we obtained per-allele ORs and standard errors from each study. Because only summary data were available, we conducted the meta-analysis in two separate groups: “Set 1 SNPs” included a core of 279,698 SNPs that were available across all studies; and “Set 2 SNPs” included 197,647 SNPs that were available only for a subset of the studies that used the HumanHap500 or denser genomic platforms or provided summary data on imputed SNPs. We obtained meta-analysis estimates of per-allele ORs and associated p values by using the weighted Z-score method under a fixed effect model.27Higgins J.P. Thompson S.G. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis.Stat. Med. 2002; 21: 1539-1558Crossref PubMed Scopus (18007) Google Scholar Tests for heterogeneity by study were performed with the use of the QE statistics, assuming a random effect model. For testing of heterogeneity across histologic subtypes, we reported the smallest p values obtained from pairwise case-case analyses between the subtypes after adjustment for multiple testing with the use of the Bonferroni correction. All odds-ratios were reported with respect to the minor allele in the pooled set of controls from all studies that contributed to the meta-analysis. For adjustment of population stratification, we used the same set of 12,898 autosomal informative SNPs24Yu K. Wang Z. Li Q. Wacholder S. Hunter D.J. Hoover R.N. Chanock S. Thomas G. Population substructure and control selection in genome-wide association studies.PLoS ONE. 2008; 3: e2551Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar used for QC. We conducted PCA in each of the four study groups (EAGLE, PLCO, ATBC, and CPS-II) separately.27Higgins J.P. Thompson S.G. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis.Stat. Med. 2002; 21: 1539-1558Crossref PubMed Scopus (18007) Google Scholar For each study group, we identi

Purpose Many children diagnosed with retinoblastoma (Rb) survive into adulthood and are prone to subsequent cancers, particularly hereditary patients, who have germline Rb-1 mutations. We have extended the follow-up of a large cohort of Rb patients for 7 more years to provide new information on the risk of additional cancers after radiotherapy in long-term survivors. Patients and Methods We analyzed the risk of new cancers through 2000 in 1,601 Rb survivors, diagnosed from 1914 to 1984, at two US medical centers. The standardized incidence ratio (SIR) was calculated as the ratio of the observed number of cancers after hereditary and nonhereditary Rb to the expected number from the Connecticut Tumor Registry. The cumulative incidence of a new cancer after hereditary and nonhereditary Rb and radiotherapy was calculated with adjustment for competing risk of death. Results Subsequent cancer risk in 963 hereditary patients (SIR, 19; 95% CI, 16 to 21) exceeded the risk in 638 nonhereditary Rb patients (SIR, 1.2; 95% CI, 0.7 to 2.0). Radiation further increased the risk of another cancer in hereditary patients by 3.1-fold (95% CI, 2.0 to 5.3). Hereditary patients continued to be at significantly increased risk for sarcomas, melanoma, and cancers of the brain and nasal cavities. The cumulative incidence for developing a new cancer at 50 years after diagnosis of Rb was 36% (95% CI, 31% to 41%) for hereditary and 5.7% (95% CI, 2.4% to 11%) for nonhereditary patients. Conclusion Hereditary Rb predisposes to a variety of new cancers over time, with radiotherapy further enhancing the risk of tumors arising in the radiation field.

It is not yet clear whether increasing melanoma incidence is real or whether recent incidence trends mainly reflect improved diagnosis. To address this question, we examined the most recent melanoma incidence patterns among the white population stratified by sex, age, tumor stage, and tumor thickness by use of data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program.We examined log-transformed age-specific rates for melanoma by 5-year age groups and time periods by year of diagnosis and birth cohort. Melanoma trends were further examined among broader age groups (<40 years, 40-59 years, and > or =60 years) by tumor stage and tumor thickness. Rates were age-adjusted to the 1970 U.S. standard population, and trends were tested by use of a two-sided Student's t test.Melanoma incidence increased in females born since the 1960s. From 1974-1975 through 1988-1989, upward trends for the incidence of localized tumors and downward trends for the incidence of distant-stage tumors occurred in the age group under 40 years. In the more recent time period, 1990-1991 through 1996-1997, age specific rates among females compared with males generally remained stable or declined more for distant-stage tumors and increased less for local-stage tumors. Thin tumors (<1 mm) increased statistically significantly in all age groups (P<.05 for all), except in men under age 40 years. In contrast, rates for thick tumors (> or =4 mm) increased statistically significantly (P =.0003) only in males aged 60 years and older.Melanoma incidence may well continue to rise in the United States, at least until the majority of the current population in the middle-age groups becomes the oldest population. The recent trends may reflect increased sunlight exposure.

The thyroid gland of children is especially vulnerable to the carcinogenic action of ionizing radiation. To provide insights into various modifying influences on risk, seven major studies with organ doses to individual subjects were evaluated. Five cohort studies (atomic bomb survivors, children treated for tinea capitis, two studies of children irradiated for enlarged tonsils, and infants irradiated for an enlarged thymus gland) and two case-control studies (patients with cervical cancer and childhood cancer) were studied. The combined studies include almost 120,000 people (approximately 58,000 exposed to a wide range of doses and 61,000 nonexposed subjects), nearly 700 thyroid cancers and 3,000,000 person years of follow-up. For persons exposed to radiation before age 15 years, linearity best described the dose response, even down to 0.10 Gy. At the highest doses (>10 Gy), associated with cancer therapy, there appeared to be a decrease or leveling of risk. For childhood exposures, the pooled excess relative risk per Gy (ERR/Gy) was 7.7 (95% CI = 2.1, 28.7) and the excess absolute risk per 104 PY Gy (EAR/104 PY Gy) was 4.4 (95% CI = 1.9, 10.1). The attributable risk percent (AR%) at 1 Gy was 88%. However, these summary estimates were affected strongly by age at exposure even within this limited age range. The ERR was greater (P = 0.07) for females than males, but the findings from the individual studies were not consistent. The EAR was higher among women, reflecting their higher rate of naturally occurring thyroid cancer. The distribution of ERR over time followed neither a simple multiplicative nor an additive pattern in relation to background occurrence. Only two cases were seen within 5 years of exposure. The ERR began to decline about 30 years after exposure but was still elevated at 40 years. Risk also decreased significantly with increasing age at exposure, with little risk apparent after age 20 years. Based on limited data, there was a suggestion that spreading dose over time (from a few days to >1 year) may lower risk, possibly due to the opportunity for cellular repair mechanisms to operate. The thyroid gland in children has one of the highest risk coefficients of any organ and is the only tissue with convincing evidence for risk at about 0.10 Gy.

To determine the incidence and relative risk (RR) of cancer in children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS), children with BWS were followed up from birth until death, diagnosis of cancer, fourth birthday, or last day of follow-up. A total of 183 children with BWS were followed up for 482 person-years. The end points were incidence of cancer, RR of cancer, and RR associated with specific BWS phenotypic features. Thirteen children were identified with cancers before the fourth year of life in comparison with fewer than one cancer expected in this group on the basis of general population rates over the same period. The average annual incidence of cancer in the first 4 years of life was 0.027 cancer per person-year. The RR of Wilms tumor (RR = 816; 95% confidence interval [CI], 359-1156), neuroblastoma (RR = 197; 95% CI, 22-711), and hepatoblastoma (RR = 2280; 95% CI, 928-11,656) were statistically significant. Asymmetry of the limbs (hemihypertrophy) was the only clinical feature associated with an increased RR of cancer (RR = 4.6; 95% CI, 1.5-14.2). Given the high incidence of cancer in infancy and early childhood of patients with BWS, a prospective study is warranted to address the utility of screening for cancer.

Multiparity and the use of oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer, but their effects on this risk in women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation are unclear.We conducted a population-based case-control study of ovarian cancer among Jewish women in Israel. Women were tested for the two founder mutations in BRCA1 and the one founder mutation in BRCA2 that are known to be common among Jews. We estimated the effects of parity and oral-contraceptive use on the risk of ovarian cancer in carriers and noncarriers in separate analyses that included all control women, who did not have ovarian cancer.Of 751 controls who underwent mutation analysis, 13 (1.7 percent) had a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation, whereas 244 of 840 women with ovarian cancer (29.0 percent) had a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Overall, each additional birth and each additional year of use of oral contraceptives were found to lower the risk of ovarian cancer, as expected. Additional births were protective in separate analyses of carriers and noncarriers, but oral-contraceptive use appeared to reduce the risk only in noncarriers; among carriers, the reduction in the odds of ovarian cancer was 12 percent per birth (95 percent confidence interval, 2.3 to 21 percent) and 0.2 percent per year of oral-contraceptive use (-4.9 to 5.0 percent).The risk of ovarian cancer among carriers of a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation decreases with each birth but not with increased duration of use of oral contraceptives. These data suggest that it is premature to use oral contraceptives for the chemoprevention of ovarian cancer in carriers of such mutations.

Abstract GenoMEL, comprising major familial melanoma research groups from North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia has created the largest familial melanoma sample yet available to characterize mutations in the high-risk melanoma susceptibility genes CDKN2A/alternate reading frames (ARF), which encodes p16 and p14ARF, and CDK4 and to evaluate their relationship with pancreatic cancer (PC), neural system tumors (NST), and uveal melanoma (UM). This study included 466 families (2,137 patients) with at least three melanoma patients from 17 GenoMEL centers. Overall, 41% (n = 190) of families had mutations; most involved p16 (n = 178). Mutations in CDK4 (n = 5) and ARF (n = 7) occurred at similar frequencies (2-3%). There were striking differences in mutations across geographic locales. The proportion of families with the most frequent founder mutation(s) of each locale differed significantly across the seven regions (P = 0.0009). Single founder CDKN2A mutations were predominant in Sweden (p.R112_L113insR, 92% of family's mutations) and the Netherlands (c.225_243del19, 90% of family's mutations). France, Spain, and Italy had the same most frequent mutation (p.G101W). Similarly, Australia and United Kingdom had the same most common mutations (p.M53I, c.IVS2-105A&amp;gt;G, p.R24P, and p.L32P). As reported previously, there was a strong association between PC and CDKN2A mutations (P &amp;lt; 0.0001). This relationship differed by mutation. In contrast, there was little evidence for an association between CDKN2A mutations and NST (P = 0.52) or UM (P = 0.25). There was a marginally significant association between NST and ARF (P = 0.05). However, this particular evaluation had low power and requires confirmation. This GenoMEL study provides the most extensive characterization of mutations in high-risk melanoma susceptibility genes in families with three or more melanoma patients yet available. (Cancer Res 2006; 66(20): 9818-28)

THE incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma is rising rapidly throughout the world.1 The most current data from the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) sy...

The risk of leukemia was evaluated in 9,170 2-or-more-year survivors of childhood cancer in the 13 institutions of the Late Effects Study Group. Secondary leukemia occurred in 22 nonreferred individuals compared to 1.52 expected, based on general population rates [relative risk (RR) = 14; 95% confidence interval (CI), 9-22]. The influence of therapy for the first cancer on subsequent leukemia risk was determined by a case-control study conducted on 25 cases and 90 matched controls. Treatment with alkylating agents was associated with a significantly elevated risk of leukemia (RR = 4.8; 95% CI, 1.2-18.9). A strong dose-response relationship was also observed between leukemia risk and total dose of alkylating agents, estimated by an alkylator score. The RR of leukemia reached 23 in the highest dose category. Radiation therapy, however, did not increase risk. Although doxorubicin was also identified as a possible risk factor, the excess risk of leukemia following treatment for childhood cancer appears almost entirely due to alkylating agents.

Purpose To evaluate risk factors for the development of and factors influencing survival in pediatric melanoma. Patients and Methods We evaluated 1,255 children (age &lt; 20 years) and 2,673 young adults (age 20 to 24 years) with melanoma in the 2001 National Cancer Institute (NCI) Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) database. We estimated exposure to UV radiation based on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measurements. Results The incidence of pediatric melanoma increased 46% (95% CI, 40 to 52) per year of age and 2.9% (95% CI, 2.1 to 3.6) per year from 1973 to 2001. Incidence rates were lower in black patients (−95%; 95% CI, −98 to −90) compared with white patients and in male patients (−39%; 95% CI −46 to −31) compared with females. Increased ambient UV radiation was associated with elevated risk (19% per kJ; 95% CI, 9 to 30). Children with melanoma had a 5-year melanoma-specific survival of 93.6% (95% CI, 91.9 to 94.9), which improved from 1973 to 2001. The hazard ratio of death from melanoma increased with male sex; older age; advanced disease; location of the primary other than extremities or torso; earlier year of diagnosis; and previous cancer. Conclusion The incidence of melanoma in the United States is increasing rapidly in children. Risk factors for pediatric melanoma include being white, being female, increasing age, and environmental UV radiation. Survival is decreased for children and adolescents with unfavorable prognostic factors (male sex, unfavorable site, and/or second primary or regional or distant metastasis). More effective therapeutic strategies are needed for these groups.

Abstract A population‐based case‐control study of 474 patients with cutaneous malignant melanoma and 926 population controls, conducted in East Denmark over a 3‐year period, included an evaluation of the relationship of UV‐light exposure to cutaneous melanoma risk. Patients with lentigo maligna melanoma were not included. Significantly increased risk was associated with severe sunburn before age 15 (RR = 2. 7 for 5 + vs. never), sunbathing (RR = 1. 6), boating (RR = 1. 4) and vacations spent in the sun (RR = 1. 4 for very sunny vs. never). A significant decrease in risk was associated with occupational exposure during the summer in males (RR = 0. 7), and no association with cutaneous microtopography was seen. These findings were independent of the effects of constitutional risk factors (naevi, freckles and light hair colour). No association was found between the risk of cutaneous melanoma and exposure to artificial UV‐light (fluorescent light, sun lamps, or sun beds). No significant difference was found between superficial spreading melanoma and nodular melanoma with regard to any of the sun exposure variables. Our data indicate that exposure to intermittent intense sunlight is an important risk factor for cutaneous malignant melanoma, while long‐term continuous exposure does not appear to be a risk factor for cutaneous malignant melanoma, while long‐term continuous exposure does not appear to be a risk factor.

Recombination, together with mutation, gives rise to genetic variation in populations. Here we leverage the recent mixture of people of African and European ancestry in the Americas to build a genetic map measuring the probability of crossing over at each position in the genome, based on about 2.1 million crossovers in 30,000 unrelated African Americans. At intervals of more than three megabases it is nearly identical to a map built in Europeans. At finer scales it differs significantly, and we identify about 2,500 recombination hotspots that are active in people of West African ancestry but nearly inactive in Europeans. The probability of a crossover at these hotspots is almost fully controlled by the alleles an individual carries at PRDM9 (P value < 10(-245)). We identify a 17-base-pair DNA sequence motif that is enriched in these hotspots, and is an excellent match to the predicted binding target of PRDM9 alleles common in West Africans and rare in Europeans. Sites of this motif are predicted to be risk loci for disease-causing genomic rearrangements in individuals carrying these alleles. More generally, this map provides a resource for research in human genetic variation and evolution.

We used molecular genetic techniques and multipoint linkage analyses to locate the gene responsible for cutaneous malignant melanoma-dysplastic nevus. We evaluated 99 relatives and 26 spouses in six families with a predisposition to melanoma. Thirty-four family members had cutaneous malignant melanoma, and 31 of these 34 also had histologically confirmed dysplastic nevi. Twenty-four family members had dysplastic nevi alone. An analysis of the cosegregation of the cutaneous malignant melanoma-dysplastic nevus trait with 26 polymorphic DNA markers on the short arm of chromosome 1 demonstrated the presence of a gene for susceptibility to melanoma. The gene was located between an anonymous DNA marker (D1S47) and the gene locus for pronatrodilatin, a commonly used reference gene (PND), in chromosome band 1p36. The odds were greater than 260,000:1 in favor of linkage at this location.

The molecular drivers that determine histology in lung cancer are largely unknown. We investigated whether microRNA (miR) expression profiles can differentiate histologic subtypes and predict survival for non-small cell lung cancer.We analyzed miR expression in 165 adenocarcinoma and 125 squamous cell carcinoma (SQ) tissue samples from the Environment And Genetics in Lung cancer Etiology (EAGLE) study using a custom oligo array with 440 human mature antisense miRs. We compared miR expression profiles using t tests and F tests and accounted for multiple testing using global permutation tests. We assessed the association of miR expression with tobacco smoking using Spearman correlation coefficients and linear regression models, and with clinical outcome using log-rank tests, Cox proportional hazards, and survival risk prediction models, accounting for demographic and tumor characteristics.MiR expression profiles strongly differed between adenocarcinoma and SQ (P(global) < 0.0001), particularly in the early stages, and included miRs located on chromosome loci most often altered in lung cancer (e.g., 3p21-22). Most miRs, including all members of the let-7 family, were downregulated in SQ. Major findings were confirmed by quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in EAGLE samples and in an independent set of lung cancer cases. In SQ, the low expression of miRs that are downregulated in the histology comparison was associated with 1.2- to 3.6-fold increased mortality risk. A five-miR signature significantly predicted survival for SQ.We identified a miR expression profile that strongly differentiated adenocarcinoma from SQ and had prognostic implications. These findings may lead to histology-based therapeutic approaches.

Cancer survivors constitute 3.5% of the United States population, but second primary malignancies among this high-risk group now account for 16% of all cancer incidence. Although few data currently exist regarding the molecular mechanisms for second primary cancers and other late outcomes after cancer treatment, the careful measurement and documentation of potentially carcinogenic treatments (chemotherapy and radiotherapy) provide a unique platform for in vivo research on gene-environment interactions in human carcinogenesis. We review research priorities identified during a National Cancer Institute (NCI)-sponsored workshop entitled "Cancer Survivorship--Genetic Susceptibility and Second Primary Cancers." These priorities include 1) development of a national research infrastructure for studies of cancer survivorship; 2) creation of a coordinated system for biospecimen collection; 3) development of new technology, bioinformatics, and biomarkers; 4) design of new epidemiologic methods; and 5) development of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Many of the infrastructure resources and design strategies that would facilitate research in this area also provide a foundation for the study of other important nonneoplastic late effects of treatment and psychosocial concerns among cancer survivors. These research areas warrant high priority to promote NCI's goal of eliminating pain and suffering related to cancer.

To identify common genetic variants that contribute to lung cancer susceptibility, we conducted a multistage genome-wide association study of lung cancer in Asian women who never smoked. We scanned 5,510 never-smoking female lung cancer cases and 4,544 controls drawn from 14 studies from mainland China, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. We genotyped the most promising variants (associated at P < 5 × 10(-6)) in an additional 1,099 cases and 2,913 controls. We identified three new susceptibility loci at 10q25.2 (rs7086803, P = 3.54 × 10(-18)), 6q22.2 (rs9387478, P = 4.14 × 10(-10)) and 6p21.32 (rs2395185, P = 9.51 × 10(-9)). We also confirmed associations reported for loci at 5p15.33 and 3q28 and a recently reported finding at 17q24.3. We observed no evidence of association for lung cancer at 15q25 in never-smoking women in Asia, providing strong evidence that this locus is not associated with lung cancer independent of smoking.

Although CDKN2A is the most frequent high-risk melanoma susceptibility gene, the underlying genetic factors for most melanoma-prone families remain unknown. Using whole-exome sequencing, we identified a rare variant that arose as a founder mutation in the telomere shelterin gene POT1 (chromosome 7, g.124493086C>T; p.Ser270Asn) in five unrelated melanoma-prone families from Romagna, Italy. Carriers of this variant had increased telomere lengths and numbers of fragile telomeres, suggesting that this variant perturbs telomere maintenance. Two additional rare POT1 variants were identified in all cases sequenced in two separate Italian families, one variant per family, yielding a frequency for POT1 variants comparable to that for CDKN2A mutations in this population. These variants were not found in public databases or in 2,038 genotyped Italian controls. We also identified two rare recurrent POT1 variants in US and French familial melanoma cases. Our findings suggest that POT1 is a major susceptibility gene for familial melanoma in several populations.

Malignant melanoma of the skin (CMM) is associated with ultraviolet radiation exposure, but the mechanisms and even the wavelengths responsible are unclear. Here we use a mammalian model to investigate melanoma formed in response to precise spectrally defined ultraviolet wavelengths and biologically relevant doses. We show that melanoma induction by ultraviolet A (320-400 nm) requires the presence of melanin pigment and is associated with oxidative DNA damage within melanocytes. In contrast, ultraviolet B radiation (280-320 nm) initiates melanoma in a pigment-independent manner associated with direct ultraviolet B DNA damage. Thus, we identified two ultraviolet wavelength-dependent pathways for the induction of CMM and describe an unexpected and significant role for melanin within the melanocyte in melanomagenesis.

Three genetic loci for lung cancer risk have been identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but inherited susceptibility to specific histologic types of lung cancer is not well established. We conducted a GWAS of lung cancer and its major histologic types, genotyping 515,922 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 5739 lung cancer cases and 5848 controls from one population-based case-control study and three cohort studies. Results were combined with summary data from ten additional studies, for a total of 13,300 cases and 19,666 controls of European descent. Four studies also provided histology data for replication, resulting in 3333 adenocarcinomas (AD), 2589 squamous cell carcinomas (SQ), and 1418 small cell carcinomas (SC). In analyses by histology, rs2736100 (TERT), on chromosome 5p15.33, was associated with risk of adenocarcinoma (odds ratio [OR]=1.23, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.13-1.33, p=3.02x10(-7)), but not with other histologic types (OR=1.01, p=0.84 and OR=1.00, p=0.93 for SQ and SC, respectively). This finding was confirmed in each replication study and overall meta-analysis (OR=1.24, 95% CI=1.17-1.31, p=3.74x10(-14) for AD; OR=0.99, p=0.69 and OR=0.97, p=0.48 for SQ and SC, respectively). Other previously reported association signals on 15q25 and 6p21 were also refined, but no additional loci reached genome-wide significance. In conclusion, a lung cancer GWAS identified a distinct hereditary contribution to adenocarcinoma.

Key Points Coincident with major changes in cancer treatments, the occurrence of tAML has changed significantly with time. The risks for tAML should be weighed against the benefits of chemotherapy.

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone malignancy of adolescents and young adults. To better understand the genetic etiology of osteosarcoma, we performed a multistage genome-wide association study consisting of 941 individuals with osteosarcoma (cases) and 3,291 cancer-free adult controls of European ancestry. Two loci achieved genome-wide significance: a locus in the GRM4 gene at 6p21.3 (encoding glutamate receptor metabotropic 4; rs1906953; P = 8.1 × 10⁻⁹) and a locus in the gene desert at 2p25.2 (rs7591996 and rs10208273; P = 1.0 × 10⁻⁸ and 2.9 × 10⁻⁷, respectively). These two loci warrant further exploration to uncover the biological mechanisms underlying susceptibility to osteosarcoma.

<h3>Importance</h3> Osteosarcoma, the most common malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents, occurs in a high number of cancer predisposition syndromes that are defined by highly penetrant germline mutations. The germline genetic susceptibility to osteosarcoma outside of familial cancer syndromes remains unclear. <h3>Objective</h3> To investigate the germline genetic architecture of 1244 patients with osteosarcoma. <h3>Design, Setting, and Participants</h3> Whole-exome sequencing (n = 1104) or targeted sequencing (n = 140) of the DNA of 1244 patients with osteosarcoma from 10 participating international centers or studies was conducted from April 21, 2014, to September 1, 2017. The results were compared with the DNA of 1062 individuals without cancer assembled internally from 4 participating studies who underwent comparable whole-exome sequencing and 27 173 individuals of non-Finnish European ancestry who were identified through the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC) database. In the analysis, 238 high-interest cancer-susceptibility genes were assessed followed by testing of the mutational burden across 736 additional candidate genes. Principal component analyses were used to identify 732 European patients with osteosarcoma and 994 European individuals without cancer, with outliers removed for patient-control group comparisons. Patients were subsequently compared with individuals in the ExAC group. All data were analyzed from June 1, 2017, to July 1, 2019. <h3>Main Outcomes and Measures</h3> The frequency of rare pathogenic or likely pathogenic genetic variants. <h3>Results</h3> Among 1244 patients with osteosarcoma (mean [SD] age at diagnosis, 16 [8.9] years [range, 2-80 years]; 684 patients [55.0%] were male), an analysis restricted to individuals with European ancestry indicated a significantly higher pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant burden in 238 high-interest cancer-susceptibility genes among patients with osteosarcoma compared with the control group (732 vs 994, respectively;<i>P</i> = 1.3 × 10⁻¹⁸). A pathogenic or likely pathogenic cancer-susceptibility gene variant was identified in 281 of 1004 patients with osteosarcoma (28.0%), of which nearly three-quarters had a variant that mapped to an autosomal-dominant gene or a known osteosarcoma-associated cancer predisposition syndrome gene. The frequency of a pathogenic or likely pathogenic cancer-susceptibility gene variant was 128 of 1062 individuals (12.1%) in the control group and 2527 of 27 173 individuals (9.3%) in the ExAC group. A higher than expected frequency of pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants was observed in genes not previously linked to osteosarcoma (eg,<i>CDKN2A</i>,<i>MEN1, VHL, POT1, APC</i>,<i>MSH2</i>, and<i>ATRX</i>) and in the Li-Fraumeni syndrome-associated gene,<i>TP53</i>. <h3>Conclusions and Relevance</h3> In this study, approximately one-fourth of patients with osteosarcoma unselected for family history had a highly penetrant germline mutation requiring additional follow-up analysis and possible genetic counseling with cascade testing.

Meredith Yeager, Stephen Chanock and colleagues analyze mosaic loss of the Y chromosome in three prospective cohorts and observe association with age and smoking but not with cancer survival. They also identify common variation at TCL1A associated with increased risk of mosaic loss of the Y chromosome. Mosaic loss of chromosome Y (mLOY) leading to gonosomal XY/XO commonly occurs during aging, particularly in smokers. We investigated whether mLOY was associated with non-hematological cancer in three prospective cohorts (8,679 cancer cases and 5,110 cancer-free controls) and genetic susceptibility to mLOY. Overall, mLOY was observed in 7% of men, and its prevalence increased with age (per-year odds ratio (OR) = 1.13, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.12–1.15; P < 2 × 10−16), reaching 18.7% among men over 80 years old. mLOY was associated with current smoking (OR = 2.35, 95% CI = 1.82–3.03; P = 5.55 × 10−11), but the association weakened with years after cessation. mLOY was not consistently associated with overall or specific cancer risk (for example, bladder, lung or prostate cancer) nor with cancer survival after diagnosis (multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio = 0.87, 95% CI = 0.73–1.04; P = 0.12). In a genome-wide association study, we observed the first example of a common susceptibility locus for genetic mosaicism, specifically mLOY, which maps to TCL1A at 14q32.13, marked by rs2887399 (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.36–1.78; P = 1.37 × 10−10).

<h3>Importance</h3> Therapy-related myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myeloid leukemia (tMDS/AML) is a rare, usually fatal complication of chemotherapy, including certain alkylating agents, topoisomerase II inhibitors, and platinum compounds. With the introduction of new chemotherapeutic agents, expanded indications for established agents, and increased neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy, tMDS/AML risks in the modern age are poorly understood. <h3>Objectives</h3> To quantify tMDS/AML risk after chemotherapy for solid cancer among United States adults since 2000 and correlate tMDS/AML risk patterns with chemotherapy treatment practices. <h3>Design, Setting, and Participants</h3> A population-based cohort study was conducted using cancer registries from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program and Medicare claims. Risk analyses included 1619 tMDS/AML cases among 700 612 adults (age, 20-84 years) who were diagnosed with first primary solid cancer during 2000 to 2013 (followed up through 2014), received initial chemotherapy, and survived 1 year or longer, as reported to SEER. Descriptive analyses were conducted of SEER records linked with Medicare claims for chemotherapy in 165 820 older adults (age, 66-84 years) receiving initial chemotherapy for a first primary solid cancer in 2000-2013. Data analysis was conducted from October 2017 to April 2018. <h3>Exposures</h3> Receipt of initial chemotherapy for solid cancer. <h3>Main Outcomes and Measures</h3> Second primary tMDS/AML. <h3>Results</h3> Based on 1619 tMDS/AML cases in the SEER database (mean [SD] age, 64.3 [12.2] years; 1148 [70.9%] female), tMDS/AML risks were statistically significantly elevated after chemotherapy for 22 of 23 solid cancers (all except colon). Relative risks ranged from 1.5 to greater than 10 and excess absolute risks from 1.4 to greater than 15 cases per 10 000 person-years compared with the general population. Overall survival following tMDS/AML diagnosis was poor (1270 of 1619 patients [78.4%] died; median overall survival, 7 months). For patients treated with chemotherapy at the present time, approximately three-quarters of tMDS/AML cases expected to occur within the next 5 years will be attributable to chemotherapy. In the SEER-Medicare database, use of known leukemogenic agents, particularly platinum compounds, in initial chemotherapy increased substantially since 2000, most notably for gastrointestinal tract cancers (esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum; 10% in 2000-2001 to 81% during 2012-2013). <h3>Conclusions and Relevance</h3> Large-scale, United States population-based data demonstrate excess tMDS/AML risks following chemotherapy for nearly all solid tumor types, consistent with expanded use of known leukemogenic agents in the 21st century. Continued efforts to reduce treatment-related adverse events, particularly for solid cancer patients with favorable prognosis, are needed.

Germ-line mutations in the CDKN2A tumor-suppressor gene (also known as p16, p16INK4a, and MTS1) have been linked to the development of melanoma in some families with inherited melanoma. Whether mutations in CDKN2A confer a predisposition to sporadic (nonfamilial) melanoma is not known. In some patients with sporadic melanoma, one or more additional primary lesions develop, suggesting that some of these patients have an underlying genetic susceptibility to the cancer. We hypothesized that this predisposition might be due to germ-line CDKN2A mutations.We used the polymerase chain reaction, single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis, and direct DNA sequencing to identify germ-line mutations in the CDKN2A gene in patients with multiple primary melanomas who did not have family histories of the disease. A quantitative yeast two-hybrid assay was used to evaluate the functional importance of the CDKN2A variants.Of 33 patients with multiple primary melanomas, 5 (15 percent; 95 percent confidence interval, 4 percent to 27 percent) had germ-line CDKN2A mutations. These included a 24-bp insertion at the 5' end of the coding sequence, three missense mutations (Arg24Pro, Met53Ile, and Ser56Ile), and a 2-bp deletion at position 307 to 308 (resulting in a truncated CDKN2A protein). In three families, CDKN2A mutations identical to those in the probands were found in other family members. In two families with mutations, we uncovered previously unknown evidence of family histories of melanoma.Some patients with multiple primary melanomas but without family histories of the disease have germ-line mutations of the CDKN2A gene. The presence of multiple primary melanomas may signal a genetic susceptibility to melanoma not only in the index patient but also in family members, who may benefit from melanoma-surveillance programs.

Melanoma incidence rates are rising rapidly, particularly in older men. Older men are also more likely to have thick melanomas, which confer high mortality and morbidity. The reasons for the rate of increase are not known; increasing sun and UV exposure, however, is the major hypothesized explanation. In the past several years, two major susceptibility genes for melanoma, CDKN2A and CDK4, have been identified, but the two genes together account for a minority of familial melanoma. Other high-risk susceptibility genes are being sought actively. Genetic epidemiologic studies suggest that penetrance of each of the two identified genes is altered by other factors, either genetic or environmental. Epidemiologic studies have also identified other major host factors important in the development of melanoma. In European, North American, and Australian populations, the presence of clinically identified dysplastic nevi confers greatly increased risk of melanoma. A new measure of sun exposure, based on individual residential history, confers substantially increased risk of melanoma. Recent surveys of sun behavior in the US reveal extensive sunburning and use of tanning beds in adolescents and adults. Sun protective behaviors are not as prevalent as in Australia, where population rates of melanoma are stabilizing.

In a case–control study, we compared 444 patients with intraocular malignant melanoma with matched controls to evaluate the role of exposure to ultraviolet radiation and other risk factors in the pathogenesis of this tumor. Persons born in the southern United States had a relative risk of 2.7 (95 per cent confidence interval, 1.3 to 5.9) as compared with those born in the North. Subjects with brown eyes were protected as compared with those with blue eyes (relative risk, 0.6; 95 per cent confidence interval, 0.4 to 0.8), but complexion and hair color were not important risk factors. Patients with intraocular malignant melanoma were also more likely to have spent time outdoors in their gardens, to have sunbathed, and to have used sunlamps. Rarely wearing hats, visors, or sunglasses while in the sun was a risk factor for the disease (relative risk, 1.9; 95 per cent confidence interval, 1.6 to 2.2). These data suggest that sunlight exposure is an important risk factor for intraocular melanoma. (N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 789–92.)

the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program TO THE EDITOR Recent findings suggest that non-melanoma skin cancer incidence in young adults is rising, particularly among US young women (Christenson et al., 2005Christenson L.J. Borrowman T.A. Vachon C.M. Tollefson M.M. Otley C.C. Weaver A.L. et al.Incidence of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas in a population younger than 40 years.JAMA. 2005; 294: 681-690Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar). This raises the important question of whether incidence of cutaneous melanoma, the most lethal form of skin cancer, is similarly increasing in young adults. Although melanoma incidence among US older adults has been increasing for several decades, there have been indications that incidence may be stabilizing for birth cohorts born after 1945 (Dennis et al., 1993Dennis L.K. White E. Lee J.A. Recent cohort trends in malignant melanoma by anatomic site in the United States.Cancer Causes Control. 1993; 4: 93-100Crossref PubMed Scopus (49) Google Scholar; Hall et al., 1999Hall H.I. Miller D.R. Rogers J.D. Bewerse B. Update on the incidence and mortality from melanoma in the United States.J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999; 40: 35-42Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar). However, in an analysis of melanoma trends between 1973 and 1997 in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, Jemal et al., 2001Jemal A. Devesa S.S. Hartge P. Tucker M.A. Recent trends in cutaneous melanoma incidence among whites in the United States.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93: 678-683Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar noted evidence of an increase among women born after 1960. Since that analysis, an additional 7 years of SEER data have been collected. To better understand recent trends in melanoma incidence among young adults, we report findings from a re-analysis of SEER data, extended through 2004. Our analysis was restricted to Caucasians from the nine registries that have contributed data to the SEER Program since 1973 (Atlanta, Connecticut, Detroit, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, San Francisco-Oakland, Seattle, Utah). We calculated annual age-adjusted incidence (SEER Program, 2007aSEER Program Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program SEER*Stat Database: Incidence—SEER 9 Regs Limited-Use, November 2006 Sub (1973–2004)—Linked To County Attributes—Total US, 1969–2004 Counties, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch, released April 2007, based on the November 2006 submission2007www.seer.cancer.gov/Google Scholar) and mortality rates (SEER Program, 2007bSEER Program Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program SEER*Stat Database: Mortality – All COD, Aggregated With State, Total US (1969–2004), National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Cancer Statistics Branch, released April 2007. Underlying mortality data provided by NCHS2007www.seer.cancer.govwww.cdc.gov/nchsGoogle Scholar) of invasive cutaneous melanoma among men and women aged 15–39 years, standardized to the 2000 US population, using the software SEER*Stat version 6.3.6 (National Cancer Institute; http://www.seer.cancer.gov/seerstat/). We assessed trends in greater detail using joinpoint regression models, which identify changes in trends over successive segments of time and describe the estimated annual percent change (EAPC) in incidence within each segment (Kim et al., 2000Kim H.J. Fay M.P. Feuer E.J. Midthune D.N. Permutation tests for joinpoint regression with applications to cancer rates.Stat Med. 2000; 19: 335-351Crossref PubMed Scopus (3348) Google Scholar), using the software Joinpoint version 3.0 (National Cancer Institute; http://www.srab.cancer.gov/joinpoint/). Joinpoint analyses stratified by melanoma stage (localized vs regional/distant) and thickness (≤1 vs >1 mm) were also performed. To describe age-specific trends by year of birth, we calculated incidence by 5-year age groups and time periods, and plotted age-specific incidence by calendar year of birth (calculated from the age group midpoint). Additionally, age–period–cohort modeling was used to simultaneously adjust age-specific incidence trends for both calendar period and birth cohort effects (Tarone and Chu, 2000Tarone R.E. Chu K.C. Age–period–cohort analyses of breast-, ovarian-, endometrial- and cervical-cancer mortality rates for Caucasian women in the USA.J Epidemiol Biostat. 2000; 5: 221-231PubMed Google Scholar). All P-values were two-sided. Overall, the age-adjusted annual incidence of melanoma among young men increased from 4.7 cases per 100,000 persons (95% confidence limits: 3.8, 5.7) in 1973 to 7.7 per 100,000 in 2004 (6.8, 8.7). Among women, age-adjusted annual incidence per 100,000 increased from 5.5 (4.5, 6.6) in 1973 to 13.9 (12.7, 15.2) in 2004. Melanoma incidence increased among young men (EAPC=6.6; 95% confidence limits (CL): 2.9, 10.4) and women (9.2; 6.8, 11.7) during the 1970s (Figure 1, Table 1). Around the start of 1980, this pattern changed. For men, incidence leveled off between 1980 and 2004 (0.4; −0.2, 0.9). For women, the rate of increase in incidence declined from 1978 to 1987 (2.6; 1.5, 3.8) and stabilized from 1987 to 1992 (−0.6; −3.7, 2.6). After 1992, however, incidence began increasing again (2.7; 2.1, 3.4). Incidence among women from the 1990s onward increased both for thinner and thicker melanomas (≤1 mm: 3.1; 2.5, 3.6 and >1 mm: 2.8; 1.6, 4.0), and was greater for regional and distant tumors (9.2; 3.8, 14.9) compared with localized lesions (1.9; 1.6, 2.3). Melanoma mortality rates for men and women declined from 1981 onward (men: −3.6; −4.5, −2.7 and women: −2.3; −3.1, −1.5).Table 1EAPC in incidence of melanoma and melanoma mortality among Caucasian males and females aged 15–39 years in the SEER Program from 1973 through 2004Trend 1Trend 2Trend 3Trend 4Years1Calendar period within joinpoint segment. Joinpoint modeling was carried out separately for males and females; hence, sex-specific joinpoint segments may differ.EAPC (95% CL)YearsEAPC (95% CL)YearsEAPC (95% CL)YearsEAPC (95% CL)Incidence Overall Males1973–19806.6 (2.9, 10.4)1980–20040.4 (−0.2, 0.9) Females1973–19789.2 (6.8, 11.7)1978–19872.6 (1.5, 3.8)1987–1992-0.6 (−3.7, 2.6)1992–20042.7 (2.1, 3.4) By stage LocalizedMales1973–19809.6 (4.9, 14.5)1980–20040.5 (−0.2, 1.2)Females1973–197815.8 (10.9, 21.0)1978–20041.9 (1.6, 2.3) Regional/distantMales1973–20041.4 (0.6, 2.2)Females1973–1994-0.9 (−2.5, 0.8)1994–20049.2 (3.8, 14.9) By thickness (1988+ only) ≤1 mmMales1988–20042.3 (1.2, 3.4)Females1988–20043.1 (2.5, 3.6) >1 mmMales1988–2004−0.3 (−1.5, 1.0)Females1988–20042.8 (1.6, 4.0)Mortality Males1973–19815.0 (0.3, 10.1)1981–2004−3.6 (−4.5, −2.7) Females1973–2004-2.3 (−3.1, −1.5)CL, confidence limits; EAPC, estimated annual percent change in melanoma incidence within jointpoint segment.Statistically significant results in bold face type.1 Calendar period within joinpoint segment. Joinpoint modeling was carried out separately for males and females; hence, sex-specific joinpoint segments may differ. Open table in a new tab CL, confidence limits; EAPC, estimated annual percent change in melanoma incidence within jointpoint segment. Statistically significant results in bold face type. Age-specific incidence patterns by year of birth are presented in Figure 2. Male age-specific incidence increased steadily with each successive birth cohort until 1950, at which time incidence appeared to level off or decrease slightly. Female age-specific incidence by birth cohort increased steadily until around 1950; thereafter, incidence appeared to climb at a slower pace until 1965, at which point incidence appeared to begin accelerating. After adjustment for age and period effects, age–period–cohort modeling confirmed a change in the effect of birth cohort for women born between 1960 and 1965 (Figure S1; slope change parameter=0.2146; 95% CL: 0.0576, 0.3716; P=0.007). Download .pdf (.02 MB) Help with pdf files Supplementary Figure 1Sex-specific maximum likelihood estimates of 5-year birth cohort effects for an age-period-cohort model fit to cutaneous melanoma incidence data for Caucasians in the SEER Program from 1973 through 2004. The vertical line at 1965 on the x-axis of the plot for women represents the point at which there is an apparent change in the slope of cohort effects. Note regarding interpretation of plot: interpretation of individual birth cohort effect estimates is difficult because the parameters are not identifiable (i.e., there is not a unique set of estimates). However, a change in the slope of a birth cohort effects curve is indicative of a change in the magnitude of disease rates. An increase (or decrease) in the slope of the birth cohort effects curve indicates a worsening (or moderation) in the birth-cohort pattern of risk. Changes in birth cohort effects for cancer incidence rates are indicative of changes in disease risk factor prevalence across birth cohorts. It is important to consider whether these trends may reflect changes in data quality, diagnosis, or surveillance. There is evidence of increased underreporting of melanoma over time within the SEER program, with estimates as high as 17% of all cases (including in situ lesions) in two registries, although such a trend in underreporting cannot explain the observed increase in incidence among women (Seiffert, 1992Seiffert J. Underreporting of melanoma.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1992; 84: 289Crossref Scopus (22) Google Scholar; Merlino et al., 1997Merlino L.A. Sullivan K.J. Whitaker D.C. Lynch C.F. The independent pathology laboratory as a reporting source for cutaneous melanoma incidence in Iowa, 1977–1994.J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997; 37: 578-585Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar). It is unlikely that a change in melanoma diagnostic criteria would account for our finding, because the effect of such a change would not be expected to be sex-specific. Changes in screening patterns may have led to earlier detection within this time period, with a higher rate of increase seen among superficial localized tumors compared with thicker lesions and regional or metastatic disease overall (Jemal et al., 2001Jemal A. Devesa S.S. Hartge P. Tucker M.A. Recent trends in cutaneous melanoma incidence among whites in the United States.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93: 678-683Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar; Welch et al., 2005Welch H.G. Woloshin S. Schwartz L.M. Skin biopsy rates and incidence of melanoma: population based ecological study.BMJ. 2005; 331: 481Crossref PubMed Scopus (258) Google Scholar). Indeed, the observed decrease in melanoma mortality rates after 1981 and previously reported evidence of general improvement in survival by stage over this time period are consistent with a shift toward earlier detection of disease through increased surveillance (Jemal et al., 2001Jemal A. Devesa S.S. Hartge P. Tucker M.A. Recent trends in cutaneous melanoma incidence among whites in the United States.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93: 678-683Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar). However, in our analysis, the increasing trend among young women from the early 1990s onward was also observed for thicker and regional/distant tumors, which are less susceptible to misclassification. Moreover, our age–period–cohort analysis suggested that, after adjusting for age and period effects (the latter of which is reflective of changes in disease surveillance), the observed increase in incidence among women born after 1965 is consistent with a birth cohort effect (indicative of changes in disease risk factor prevalence across birth cohorts; Tarone and Chu, 2000Tarone R.E. Chu K.C. Age–period–cohort analyses of breast-, ovarian-, endometrial- and cervical-cancer mortality rates for Caucasian women in the USA.J Epidemiol Biostat. 2000; 5: 221-231PubMed Google Scholar). Thus, our findings are compatible with a real increase in incidence among young women, although we cannot rule out the effects of changes in surveillance. The recent increase in incidence among young women parallels reported trends in exposure to UVR, the primary environmental cause of melanoma (Armstrong and Kricker, 2001Armstrong B.K. Kricker A. The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer.J Photochem Photobiol B. 2001; 63: 8-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (1355) Google Scholar). The prevalence of sunburn is increasing among US adult men and women overall, although trends by age group have not been reported (Robinson et al., 1997Robinson J.K. Rigel D.S. Amonette R.A. Trends in sun exposure knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors: 1986–1996.J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997; 37: 179-186Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (237) Google Scholar; Saraiya et al., 2007Saraiya M. Balluz L. Wen X.J. Joseph D.A. Sunburn prevalence among adults—United States, 1999, 2003 and 2004.Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2007; 56: 524-528PubMed Google Scholar). Among adolescents aged 16–18 years, both the prevalence of sunburn and the average number of days spent at the beach increased between sun surveys conducted in 1998 and 2004 (Cokkinides et al., 2006Cokkinides V. Weinstock M. Glanz K. Albano J. Ward E. Thun M. Trends in sunburns, sun protection practices, and attitudes toward sun exposure protection and tanning among US adolescents, 1998–2004.Pediatrics. 2006; 118: 853-864Crossref PubMed Scopus (139) Google Scholar). Tanning bed usage, which has been recently evaluated as a probable cause of melanoma (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2007International Agency for Research on Cancer The association of use of sunbeds with cutaneous malignant melanoma and other skin cancers: a systematic review.Int J Cancer. 2007; 120: 1116-1122PubMed Google Scholar), is increasing among US adults and is most prevalent among young women (Robinson et al., 1997Robinson J.K. Rigel D.S. Amonette R.A. Trends in sun exposure knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors: 1986–1996.J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997; 37: 179-186Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (237) Google Scholar; Lazovich and Forster, 2005Lazovich D. Forster J. Indoor tanning by adolescents: prevalence, practices and policies.Eur J Cancer. 2005; 41: 20-27Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (74) Google Scholar). In conclusion, our analysis of SEER data suggests that melanoma incidence is increasing among young women. Additional studies are needed to clarify whether the increasing trends for melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (Christenson et al., 2005Christenson L.J. Borrowman T.A. Vachon C.M. Tollefson M.M. Otley C.C. Weaver A.L. et al.Incidence of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas in a population younger than 40 years.JAMA. 2005; 294: 681-690Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar) are the result of changes in UVR exposure in this population. The authors state no conflict of interest. This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health and the National Cancer Institute. The SEER Program is operated by the National Cancer Institute Surveillance Research Program. Figure S1. Sex-specific maximum likelihood estimates of 5-year birth cohort effects for an age-period-cohort model fit to cutaneous melanoma incidence data for Caucasians in the SEER Program from 1973 through 2004.

Meredith Yeager and colleagues with the Cancer Genetics Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) initiative report a new association to prostate cancer at chromosome 8q24. This defines a new locus, region 4, which shows association to prostate cancer susceptibility independent of previously reported associations at 8q24. We report a genome-wide association study in 10,286 cases and 9,135 controls of European ancestry in the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) initiative. We identify a new association with prostate cancer risk on chromosome 8q24 (rs620861, P = 1.3 × 10−10, heterozygote OR = 1.17, 95% CI 1.10–1.24; homozygote OR = 1.33, 95% CI 1.21–1.45). This defines a new locus associated with prostate cancer susceptibility on 8q24.

Epidemiologic studies of the families of patients with ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T), a recessive genetic neurologic disorder caused by mutation of the ATM gene, suggest that heterozygous carriers of an ATM mutation are at increased risk of cancer. A population-based study of cancer incidence in A-T families with unbiased selection and tracing of relatives would confirm this hypothesis.We conducted a study in the Nordic countries of 1218 blood relatives of 56 A-T patients from 50 families. The relatives were identified from population registries, and the occurrence of cancer was determined from cancer registry files in each country and compared with national incidence rates. All statistical tests were two-sided.Among the 56 patients with A-T, we observed six cases of cancer (four leukemias and two non-Hodgkin's lymphomas) compared with 0.16 expected, yielding a standardized incidence ratio (SIR) of 37 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 13 to 80). Among the 1218 relatives, 150 cancers were recorded, with 126 expected (SIR = 1.19; 95% CI = 1.01 to 1.40). Invasive breast cancer occurred in 21 female relatives of A-T patients (SIR = 1.54; 95% CI = 0.95 to 2.36), including five of the 50 mothers (all of whom are obligate ATM mutation carriers) (SIR = 7.1; 95% CI = 2.3 to 17). Relatives who were less likely to be carriers of a mutant ATM allele had no increase or only a modest, statistically nonsignificant increase in the risk of breast cancer. There was no evidence of increased risk for cancer at any other site.We confirmed the previously recognized high risk of lymphoma and leukemia in A-T patients. Our data are also consistent with an increased risk of breast cancer among blood relatives of A-T patients. The epidemiologic findings suggest, however, that, even if ATM mutations are responsible for some breast cancer cases, ATM is a relatively weak genetic risk factor for the disease.

Objective: To determine the incidence of second primary cancers developing in patients surviving free of cancer for 2 or more years after treatment for small-cell lung cancer and to assess the potential effect of smoking cessation. Design: Retrospective review of 540 patients from a single institution with a median follow-up of 6.1 years. Setting: A single government institution (the National Cancer Institute). Patients: Consecutive sample of 540 patients with histologically confirmed small-cell lung cancer treated from 1973 through 1989 on therapeutic clinical trials. Measurements: The relative risk for second primary cancers and death were calculated in patients who remained free of cancer for 2 years after initiation of therapy. The relation of these end points to smoking history was also determined. Results: Fifty-five patients (10%) were free of cancer 2 years after initiation of therapy. Eighteen of these patients developed one or more second primary cancers, including 13 who developed second primary non-small-cell lung cancer. The risk for any second primary cancer compared with that in the general population was increased four times (relative risk, 4.4; 95% CI, 2.5-7.2), with a relative risk of a second primary non-small-cell lung cancer of 16 (CI, 8.4-27). Forty-three patients discontinued smoking within 6 months of starting treatment for small-cell lung cancer, and 12 continued to smoke. In those who stopped smoking at time of diagnosis, the relative risk of a second lung cancer was 11 (CI, 4.4 to 23), whereas, in those who continued to smoke, it was 32 (CI, 12 to 69). Conclusions: Patients with small-cell lung cancer who survive cancer-free for more than 2 years have a significantly increased risk for development of a second primary smoking-related cancer. Cigarette smoking cessation after successful therapy is associated with a decrease in risk for a second smoking-related primary cancer.

<h3>Objective.</h3> —To investigate the relationship of number and type of nevi to the development of melanoma. <h3>Design.</h3> —Case-control study. <h3>Setting.</h3> —Outpatient clinics in referral hospitals. <h3>Patients.</h3> —Cases were 716 consecutive patients with newly diagnosed melanoma identified at 2 melanoma centers between January 1,1991, and December 31, 1992. Stratified random sampling of patients from outpatient clinics was used to identify 1014 participating controls of the same age, sex, race, and geographic distribution as the melanoma cases. All study subjects underwent an interview, a complete skin examination, photography of the most atypical nevi, and, if the patient was willing, a biopsy of the most atypical nevus. <h3>Main Outcome Measures.</h3> —Number and type of nevi on the entire body were systematically reported. All diagnoses of clinically dysplastic nevi were confirmed by expert examiners. <h3>Results.</h3> —Risk for melanoma was strongly related to number of small nevi, large nondysplastic nevi, and clinically dysplastic nevi. In the absence of dysplastic nevi, increased numbers of small nevi were associated with an approximately 2-fold risk, and increased numbers of both small and large nondysplastic nevi were associated with a 4-fold risk. One clinically dysplastic nevus was associated with a 2-fold risk (95% confidence interval, 1.4-3.6), while 10 or more conferred a 12-fold increased risk (95% confidence interval, 4.4-31). Congenital nevi were not associated with increased risk of melanoma. <h3>Conclusions.</h3> —Although nondysplastic nevi confer a small risk, clinically dysplastic nevi confer substantial risk for melanoma. On the basis of nevus number and type, clinicians can identify a population at high risk of this epidemic cancer for screening and intervention.

Three founder mutations in the cancer-associated genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 occur frequently enough among Ashkenazi Jews to warrant consideration of genetic testing outside the setting of high-risk families with multiple cases of breast or ovarian cancer. We estimated the prevalence of these founder mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 in the general population of Ashkenazi Jews according to age at testing, personal cancer history, and family cancer history. We compared the results of anonymous genetic testing of blood samples obtained in a survey of >5,000 Jewish participants from the Washington, DC, area with personal and family cancer histories obtained from questionnaires completed by the participants. In all subgroups defined by age and cancer history, fewer mutations were found in this community sample than in clinical series studied to date. For example, 11 (10%) of 109 Jewish women who had been given a diagnosis of breast cancer in their forties carried one of the mutations. The most important predictor of mutation status was a previous diagnosis of breast or ovarian cancer. In men and in women never given a diagnosis of cancer, family history of breast cancer before age 50 years was the strongest predictor. As interest in genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 in the Jewish community broadens, community-based estimates such as these help guide those seeking and those offering such testing. Even with accurate estimates of the likelihood of carrying a mutation and the likelihood of developing cancer if a mutation is detected, the most vexing clinical problems remain.

Article Tools Melanoma Article Tools OPTIONS & TOOLS Export Citation Track Citation Add To Favorites Rights & Permissions COMPANION ARTICLES No companion articles ARTICLE CITATION DOI: 10.1200/JCO.1999.17.10.3245 Journal of Clinical Oncology - published online before print September 21, 2016 PMID: 10506626 Counseling and DNA Testing for Individuals Perceived to Be Genetically Predisposed to Melanoma: A Consensus Statement of the Melanoma Genetics Consortium Richard F. KeffordxRichard F. KeffordSearch for articles by this author , Julia A. Newton BishopxJulia A. Newton BishopSearch for articles by this author , Wilma BergmanxWilma BergmanSearch for articles by this author , Margaret A. TuckerxMargaret A. TuckerSearch for articles by this author , Show More From the Westmead Institute for Cancer Research, University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, New South Wales, Australia; Imperial Cancer Research Fund (ICRF) Cancer Medicine Research Unit and ICRF Genetic Epidemiology, St James's University Hospital, Leeds, United Kingdom; Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands; and National Cancer Institute, Rockville, MD. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.1999.17.10.3245 First Page Full Text PDF Figures and Tables © 1999 by American Society of Clinical Oncology

The gene for familial malignant melanoma and its precursor lesion, the dysplastic nevus, has been assigned to a region of the distal short arm of chromosome 1, which is frequently involved in karyotypic abnormalities in melanoma cells. We have examined loci on chromosome 1p for loss-of-constitutional heterozygosity in 35 melanomas and 21 melanoma cell lines to analyze the role of these abnormalities in melanocyte transformation. Loss-of-heterozygosity at loci on chromosome 1p was identified in 15/35 (43%) melanomas and 11/21 (52%) melanoma cell lines. Analysis of multiple metastases derived from the same patient and of melanoma and lymphoblastoid samples from a family with hereditary melanoma showed that the loss-of-heterozygosity at loci on distal 1p is a late event in tumor progression, rather than the second mutation that would occur if melanoma were due to a cellular recessive mechanism. Comparisons with neuroblastoma and multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN2) suggest that the frequent 1p loss-of-heterozygosity in these malignancies is a common late event of neuroectodermal tumor progression.

An increased risk of second primary cancers has been reported in patients who survive small-cell carcinoma of the lung. The treatment's contribution to the development of second cancers is difficult to assess, in part because the number of long-term survivors seen at any one institution is small. We designed a multi-institution study to investigate the risk among survivors of developing second primary cancers other than small-cell lung carcinoma.Demographic, smoking, and treatment information were obtained from the medical records of 611 patients who had been cancer free for more than 2 years after therapy for histologically proven small-cell lung cancer, and person-years of follow-up were cumulated. Population-based rates of cancer incidence and mortality were used to estimate the expected number of cancers or deaths. The actuarial risk of second cancers was estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method.Relative to the general population, the risk of all second cancers among these patients (mostly non-small-cell cancers of the lung) was increased 3.5-fold. Second lung cancer risk was increased 13-fold among those who received chest irradiation in comparison to a sevenfold increase among nonirradiated patients. It was higher in those who continued smoking, with evidence of an interaction between chest irradiation and continued smoking (relative risk = 21). Patients treated with various forms of combination chemotherapy had comparable increases in risk (9.4- to 13-fold, overall), except for a 19-fold risk increase among those treated with alkylating agents who continued smoking.Because of their substantially increased risk, survivors should stop smoking and may consider entering trials of secondary chemoprevention.

Survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma have an increased risk for second malignancies, especially soft tissue sarcomas. However, the risks of individual histologic subtypes of soft tissue sarcomas have not been evaluated.We estimated the risk for six subtypes of soft tissue sarcomas (fibrosarcoma, liposarcoma, histiocytoma, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and others) in a cohort of 963 one-year survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma among patients diagnosed at two US institutions from 1914 through 1984. We calculated standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) for specific subtypes of soft tissue sarcomas by comparison with population data from the Connecticut Tumor Registry or from National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database. We also calculated the cumulative risk for all soft tissue sarcomas combined.We observed 69 soft tissue sarcomas in 68 patients with hereditary retinoblastoma. Risks were elevated for soft tissue sarcomas overall (SIR = 184, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 143 to 233) and for individual subtypes. Leiomyosarcoma was the most frequent subtype (SIR = 390, 95% CI = 247 to 585), with 78% of leiomyosarcomas diagnosed 30 or more years after the retinoblastoma diagnosis (SIR = 435, 95% CI = 258 to 687). Among patients treated with radiotherapy for retinoblastoma, we found statistically significantly increased risks of soft tissue sarcomas in the field of radiation. Irradiated patients also had increased risks of soft tissue sarcomas, especially leiomyosarcomas, outside the field of radiation, and risks of soft tissue sarcomas were increased in nonirradiated patients as well, indicating a genetic predisposition to soft tissue sarcomas independent of radiation. The cumulative risk for any soft tissue sarcoma 50 years after radiotherapy for retinoblastoma was 13.1% (95% CI = 9.7% to 17.0%).Long-term follow-up of a cohort of survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma revealed a statistically significant excess of leiomyosarcoma and other soft tissue sarcomas that persists decades after the retinoblastoma diagnosis. Retinoblastoma survivors should undergo regular medical surveillance for sarcomas in their adult years.

Objective: To quantify the risk of subsequent primary cancers among patients with primary cutaneous malignant melanoma.Design: Population-based registry study.Setting: We evaluated data from 9 cancer registries of the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program from 1973-2006.Participants: We included 89 515 patients who survived at least 2 months after their initial melanoma diagnosis.Results: Of the patients with melanoma, 10 857 (12.1%) developed 1 or more subsequent primary cancers.The overall risk of a subsequent primary cancer increased by 28% (observed to expected [O:E] ratio=1.28).One quarter of the cancers were subsequent primary melanomas (O:E=8.61).Women with head and neck melanoma and patients younger than30hadmarkedlyincreasedrisks(O:E=13.22and13.40,respectively) of developing a subsequent melanoma.Second melanomas were more likely to be thin than were the first of multiple primary melanomas (thickness at diagno-sisϽ1.00mm,77.9%vs70.3%,respectively;PϽ.001).Melanoma survivors had increased risk of developing several cancers;themostcommoncancerswithelevatedriskswerebreast, prostate, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (O:E=1.10,1.15, and 1.25, respectively).Conclusions: Melanoma survivors have an approximately 9-fold increased risk of developing subsequent melanoma compared with the general population.The risk remains elevated more than 20 years after the initial melanoma diagnosis.This increased risk may be owing to behavioral factors, genetic susceptibility, or medical surveillance.Although the percentage of subsequent primary melanomas thicker than 1 mm is lower than for the first of multiple primary melanomas, it is still substantial.Melanoma survivors should remain under surveillance not only for recurrence but also for future primary melanomas and other cancers.

Previous studies have shown increased risks of second malignancies after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); however, no earlier investigation has quantified differences in risk of new malignancy by lymphoma subtype.We evaluated second cancer and leukemia risks among 43,145 1-year survivors of CLL/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), or follicular lymphoma (FL) from 11 Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) population-based registries during 1992 to 2006.Among patients without HIV/AIDS-related lymphoma, lung cancer risks were significantly elevated after CLL/SLL and FL but not after DLBCL (standardized incidence ratio [SIR], CLL/SLL = 1.42, FL = 1.28, DLBCL = 1.00; Poisson regression P for difference among subtypes, P(Diff) = .001). A similar pattern was observed for risk of cutaneous melanoma (SIR: CLL/SLL = 1.92, FL = 1.60, DLBCL = 1.06; P(Diff) = .004). Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia risks were significantly elevated after FL and DLBCL, particularly among patients receiving initial chemotherapy, but not after CLL/SLL (SIR: CLL/SLL = 1.13, FL = 5.96, DLBCL = 4.96; P(Diff) < .001). Patients with HIV/AIDS-related lymphoma (n = 932) were predominantly diagnosed with DLBCL and had significantly and substantially elevated risks for second anal cancer (SIR = 120.50) and Kaposi's sarcoma (SIR = 138.90).Our findings suggest that differing immunologic alterations, treatments (eg, alkylating agent chemotherapy), genetic susceptibilities, and other risk factors (eg, viral infections, tobacco use) among lymphoma subtypes contribute to the patterns of second malignancy risk. Elucidating these patterns may provide etiologic clues to lymphoma as well as to the second malignancies.

Approximately 5% to 10% of melanoma may be hereditary in nature, and about 2% of melanoma can be specifically attributed to pathogenic germline mutations in cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A (<i>CDKN2A</i>). To appropriately identify the small proportion of patients who benefit most from referral to a genetics specialist for consideration of genetic testing for <i>CDKN2A</i>, we have reviewed available published studies of <i>CDKN2A</i> mutation analysis in cohorts with invasive, cutaneous melanoma and found variability in the rate of <i>CDKN2A</i> mutations based on geography, ethnicity, and the type of study and eligibility criteria used. Except in regions of high melanoma incidence, such as Australia, we found higher rates of <i>CDKN2A</i> positivity in individuals with 3 or more primary invasive melanomas and/or families with at least one invasive melanoma and two or more other diagnoses of invasive melanoma and/or pancreatic cancer among first- or second-degree relatives on the same side of the family. The work summarized in this review should help identify individuals who are appropriate candidates for referral for genetic consultation and possible testing.

Genome-wide association studies of lung cancer reported in populations of European background have identified three regions on chromosomes 5p15.33, 6p21.33, and 15q25 that have achieved genome-wide significance with p-values of 10(-7) or lower. These studies have been performed primarily in cigarette smokers, raising the possibility that the observed associations could be related to tobacco use, lung carcinogenesis, or both. Since most women in Asia do not smoke, we conducted a genome-wide association study of lung adenocarcinoma in never-smoking females (584 cases, 585 controls) among Han Chinese in Taiwan and found that the most significant association was for rs2736100 on chromosome 5p15.33 (p = 1.30 x 10(-11)). This finding was independently replicated in seven studies from East Asia totaling 1,164 lung adenocarcinomas and 1,736 controls (p = 5.38 x 10(-11)). A pooled analysis achieved genome-wide significance for rs2736100. This SNP marker localizes to the CLPTM1L-TERT locus on chromosome 5p15.33 (p = 2.60 x 10(-20), allelic risk = 1.54, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.41-1.68). Risks for heterozygote and homozygote carriers of the minor allele were 1.62 (95% CI; 1.40-1.87), and 2.35 (95% CI: 1.95-2.83), respectively. In summary, our results show that genetic variation in the CLPTM1L-TERT locus of chromosome 5p15.33 is directly associated with the risk of lung cancer, most notably adenocarcinoma.

Abstract The relationshop between cutaneous malignant melanoma and possible host factors was Investigated in a populationbased case‐control study from East Denmark over a 3‐year period. A total of 474 melanoma patlents and 926 population controls aged 20–79 years were interviewed. Patients with lentigo maligna melanoma were not included. The major constitutional risk factors were: number of raised naevi on the arms (RR = 5,1 for 5+ vs, none), degree of freckling (RR = 2.9 for many vs, none), and light hair colour (RR = 1.7 for blond/fair vs. dark brown/black), which were independent of one another. An apparent synergy between number of raised naevi on the arms and degree of freckling was found. Thus, persons at high risk of melanoma may be identified by a simple assessment of naevi and degree of freckling. No significent difference was found between superficial spreading melanoma and nodular melanoma with regard to the most important host factors.

Abstract Background: Malignant melanoma has been one of the most rapidly increasing cancers within the United States with few modifiable risk factors. This study investigates risk related to dietary factors, which are potentially modifiable. Methods: Newly diagnosed patients with melanoma (n = 502) were recruited from pigment lesion clinics and controls (n = 565) were recruited from outpatient clinics. To investigate the relationship between melanoma and dietary factors in this case-control study, study subjects were requested to complete a food frequency questionnaire, which assessed diet over the previous year. Using logistic regression, odds ratios (ORs) for melanoma were computed for nutrient and alcohol intake. Results: Persons in high versus low quintiles of energy-adjusted vitamin D, α-carotene, β-carotene, cryptoxanthin, lutein, and lycopene had significantly reduced risk for melanoma (ORs ≤ 0.67), which remained after adjustment for presence of dysplastic nevi, education, and skin response to repeated sun exposure. Addition of micronutrients from supplements did not add an additional reduction in risk. High alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk for melanoma, which remained after adjustment for confounders [OR (95% confidence interval) in highest versus lowest quintiles, 1.65 (1.09-2.49)]. Conclusions: Diets consisting of foods rich in vitamin D and carotenoids and low in alcohol may be associated with a reduction in risk for melanoma. These analyses should be repeated in large, prospective studies.

Dongxin Lin, Philip Taylor, Li-Dong Wang and colleagues have now pooled three genome-wide association analyses of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, finding two new risk loci at genome-wide significance and an HLA class II locus of significance in high-risk populations. They reanalyze the strength of evidence for previously published risk loci. We conducted a joint (pooled) analysis of three genome-wide association studies (GWAS)1,2,3 of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) in individuals of Chinese ancestry (5,337 ESCC cases and 5,787 controls) with 9,654 ESCC cases and 10,058 controls for follow-up. In a logistic regression model adjusted for age, sex, study and two eigenvectors, two new loci achieved genome-wide significance, marked by rs7447927 at 5q31.2 (per-allele odds ratio (OR) = 0.85, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.82–0.88; P = 7.72 × 10−20) and rs1642764 at 17p13.1 (per-allele OR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.85–0.91; P = 3.10 × 10−13). rs7447927 is a synonymous SNP in TMEM173, and rs1642764 is an intronic SNP in ATP1B2, near TP53. Furthermore, a locus in the HLA class II region at 6p21.32 (rs35597309) achieved genome-wide significance in the two populations at highest risk for ESSC (OR = 1.33, 95% CI = 1.22–1.46; P = 1.99 × 10−10). Our joint analysis identifies new ESCC susceptibility loci overall as well as a new locus unique to the population in the Taihang Mountain region at high risk of ESCC.

Segregation and linkage analyses were undertaken in families with multiple cases of cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) and a recently-described melanoma precursor, the dysplastic nevus syndrome (DNS). Clinical and laboratory data, including 23 genetic markers, were collected on 401 members of 14 high-risk kindreds. Pedigree analysis was compatible with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance for the familial CMM trait. Although a similar model probably applies to the DNS trait as well, segregation analysis could not confirm the presence of a major locus. However, linkage analysis suggested that an autosomal dominant model was appropriate for the DNS, and that a DNS/CMM susceptibility gene may be located on the short arm of chromosome 1, within 30 map units of the Rh locus [maximum logarithm of odds (lod) score = 2.00].

Subsequent malignant neoplasms are a major cause of premature death in survivors of hereditary retinoblastoma. Radiotherapy further increases the risk of death. Mortality information is limited among long-term survivors who were irradiated for hereditary retinoblastoma.We examined cause-specific mortality among 1854 retinoblastoma survivors who were diagnosed from January 1, 1914, through December 31, 1996, at two US institutions. Standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated by use of US mortality data to estimate expected numbers of deaths. The relative rates (RRs) of mortality due to subsequent malignant neoplasms associated with multiple risk factors were evaluated with Poisson regression models. Cumulative mortality from subsequent malignant neoplasms was calculated by treating other causes of death as competing risks.A total of 151 deaths due to subsequent malignant neoplasms occurred among 1092 hereditary retinoblastoma survivors (SMR = 35, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 30 to 41) compared with 12 deaths among 762 nonhereditary retinoblastoma survivors (SMR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.3 to 4.4). In this extended follow-up of retinoblastoma survivors, we found no evidence of excess mortality from non-neoplastic causes compared with the general population. However, excess mortality from subsequent malignant neoplasms (particularly sarcomas, melanomas, and cancers of the brain and other parts of the nervous system) among hereditary retinoblastoma survivors extended beyond 40 years after retinoblastoma diagnosis. The additional 13 years of follow-up since our last mortality study revealed a previously unreported increased risk of death due to cancers of the corpus uteri (primarily sarcomas) and confirmed the previously reported elevated risk of death from lung cancer among hereditary retinoblastoma survivors. Among hereditary and nonhereditary retinoblastoma survivors, the relative rates of mortality from subsequent malignant neoplasm were higher in those who had been treated with radiotherapy than in those who had not. Cumulative mortality from subsequent malignant neoplasms at 50 years after retinoblastoma diagnosis was 25.5% (95% CI = 20.8% to 30.2%) for hereditary retinoblastoma survivors and 1.0% (95% CI = 0.2% to 1.8%) for nonhereditary retinoblastoma survivors.The temporal patterns of site-specific excess risks of subsequent malignant neoplasms in retinoblastoma survivors should inform screening programs designed for the early detection and treatment of subsequent malignant neoplasms.

The genetic regulation of the human epigenome is not fully appreciated. Here we describe the effects of genetic variants on the DNA methylome in human lung based on methylation-quantitative trait loci (meQTL) analyses. We report 34,304 cis- and 585 trans-meQTLs, a genetic–epigenetic interaction of surprising magnitude, including a regulatory hotspot. These findings are replicated in both breast and kidney tissues and show distinct patterns: cis-meQTLs mostly localize to CpG sites outside of genes, promoters and CpG islands (CGIs), while trans-meQTLs are over-represented in promoter CGIs. meQTL SNPs are enriched in CTCF-binding sites, DNaseI hypersensitivity regions and histone marks. Importantly, four of the five established lung cancer risk loci in European ancestry are cis-meQTLs and, in aggregate, cis-meQTLs are enriched for lung cancer risk in a genome-wide analysis of 11,587 subjects. Thus, inherited genetic variation may affect lung carcinogenesis by regulating the human methylome. The effects of genetic variation on DNA methylation patterns are poorly understood. Here, Shi et al.systematically map methylation-quantitative trait loci in lung, breast and kidney tissue to reveal the impact of inherited variation on the human methylome, which also affects cancer risk.

Studies have causally linked external thyroid radiation exposure in childhood with thyroid cancer. In 1995, investigators conducted relative risk analyses of pooled data from seven epidemiologic studies. Doses were mostly <10 Gy, although childhood cancer therapies can result in thyroid doses >50 Gy. We pooled data from 12 studies of thyroid cancer patients who were exposed to radiation in childhood (ages <20 years), more than doubling the data, including 1,070 (927 exposed) thyroid cancers and 5.3 million (3.4 million exposed) person-years. Relative risks increased supralinearly through 2–4 Gy, leveled off between 10–30 Gy and declined thereafter, remaining significantly elevated above 50 Gy. There was a significant relative risk trend for doses <0.10 Gy (P < 0.01), with no departure from linearity (P = 0.36). We observed radiogenic effects for both papillary and nonpapillary tumors. Estimates of excess relative risk per Gy (ERR/Gy) were homogeneous by sex (P = 0.35) and number of radiation treatments (P = 0.84) and increased with decreasing age at the time of exposure. The ERR/Gy estimate was significant within ten years of radiation exposure, 2.76 (95% CI, 0.94–4.98), based on 42 exposed cases, and remained elevated 50 years and more after exposure. Finally, exposure to chemotherapy was significantly associated with thyroid cancer, with results supporting a nonsynergistic (additive) association with radiation.

CDKN2A and CDK4 are high risk susceptibility genes for cutaneous malignant melanoma. Melanoma families with CDKN2A germline mutations have been extensively characterised, whereas CDK4 families are rare and lack a systematic investigation of their phenotype.All known families with CDK4 germline mutations (n=17) were recruited for the study by contacting the authors of published papers or by requests via the Melanoma Genetics Consortium (GenoMEL). Phenotypic data related to primary melanoma and pigmentation characteristics were collected. The CDK4 exon 2 and the complete coding region of the MC1R gene were sequenced.Eleven families carried the CDK4 R24H mutation whereas six families had the R24C mutation. The total number of subjects with verified melanoma was 103, with a median age at first melanoma diagnosis of 39 years. Forty-three (41.7%) subjects had developed multiple primary melanomas (MPM). A CDK4 mutation was found in 89 (including 62 melanoma cases) of 209 tested subjects. CDK4 positive family members (both melanoma cases and unaffected subjects) were more likely to have clinically atypical nevi than CDK4 negative family members (p<0.001). MPM subjects had a higher frequency of MC1R red hair colour variants compared with subjects with one tumour (p=0.010).Our study shows that families with CDK4 germline mutations cannot be distinguished phenotypically from CDKN2A melanoma families, which are characterised by early onset of disease, increased occurrence of clinically atypical nevi, and development of MPM. In a clinical setting, the CDK4 gene should therefore always be examined when a melanoma family tests negative for CDKN2A mutation.

The increased use of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that involve radiation raises concerns about radiation effects, particularly in children and the radiosensitive thyroid gland. Evaluation of relative risk (RR) trends for thyroid radiation doses <0.2 gray (Gy); evidence of a threshold dose; and possible modifiers of the dose-response, e.g., sex, age at exposure, time since exposure. Pooled data from nine cohort studies of childhood external radiation exposure and thyroid cancer with individualized dose estimates, ≥1000 irradiated subjects or ≥10 thyroid cancer cases, with data limited to individuals receiving doses <0.2 Gy. Cohorts included the following: childhood cancer survivors (n = 2); children treated for benign diseases (n = 6); and children who survived the atomic bombings in Japan (n = 1). There were 252 cases and 2,588,559 person-years in irradiated individuals and 142 cases and 1,865,957 person-years in nonirradiated individuals. There were no interventions. Incident thyroid cancers. For both <0.2 and <0.1 Gy, RRs increased with thyroid dose (P < 0.01), without significant departure from linearity (P = 0.77 and P = 0.66, respectively). Estimates of threshold dose ranged from 0.0 to 0.03 Gy, with an upper 95% confidence bound of 0.04 Gy. The increasing dose–response trend persisted >45 years after exposure, was greater at younger age at exposure and younger attained age, and was similar by sex and number of treatments. Our analyses reaffirmed linearity of the dose response as the most plausible relationship for “as low as reasonably achievable” assessments for pediatric low-dose radiation-associated thyroid cancer risk.

Hereditary retinoblastoma (Rb) survivors have increased risk of subsequent malignant neoplasms (SMNs). Previous studies reported elevated radiotherapy (RT) -related SMN risks, but less is known about chemotherapy-related risks.In a long-term follow-up study of 906 5-year hereditary Rb survivors diagnosed from 1914 to 1996 and observed through 2009, treatment-related SMN risks were quantified using cumulative incidence analyses and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models with age as the underlying time scale.Nearly 90% of Rb survivors were treated with RT, and almost 40% received alkylating agent (AA) -containing chemotherapy (predominantly triethylenemelamine). Median follow-up time to first SMN diagnosis was 26.3 years. Overall SMN risk was not significantly elevated among survivors receiving AA plus RT versus RT without chemotherapy (hazard ratio [HR], 1.27; 95% CI, 0.99 to 1.63). AA-related risks were significantly increased for subsequent bone tumors (HR, 1.60; 95% CI, 1.03 to 2.49) and leiomyosarcoma (HR, 2.67; 95% CI, 1.22 to 5.85) but not for melanoma (HR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.36 to 1.55) or epithelial tumors (HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.48 to 1.64). Leiomyosarcoma risk was significantly increased for survivors who received AAs at age < 1 (HR, 5.17; 95% CI, 1.76 to 15.17) but not for those receiving AAs at age ≥ 1 year (HR, 1.75; 95% CI, 0.68 to 4.51). Development of leiomyosarcoma was significantly more common after AA plus RT versus RT (5.8% v 1.6% at age 40 years; P = .01).This comprehensive quantification of SMN risk after chemotherapy and RT among hereditary Rb survivors also demonstrates an AA-related contribution to risk. Although triethylenemelamine is no longer prescribed, our findings warrant further follow-up to investigate potential SMN risks associated with current chemotherapies used for Rb.

To evaluate the risk of second cancer (SC) in long-term survivors of retinoblastoma (Rb) according to classification of germline mutation, based on family history of Rb and laterality.We assembled a cohort of 1,852 1-year survivors of Rb (bilateral, n = 1,036; unilateral, n = 816). SCs were ascertained by medical records and self-reports and confirmed by pathology reports. Classification of RB1 germline mutation, inherited or de novo, was inferred by laterality of Rb and positive family history of Rb. Standardized incidence ratios and cumulative incidence for all SCs combined and for soft tissue sarcomas, bone cancers, and melanoma were calculated. The influence of host- and therapy-related risk factors for SC was assessed by Poisson regression for bilateral survivors.We observed a relative risk (RR) of 1.37 (95% CI, 1.00 to 1.86) for SCs in bilateral survivors associated with a family history of Rb, adjusted for treatment, age, and length of follow-up. The risk for melanoma was significantly elevated for survivors with a family history of Rb (RR, 3.08; 95% CI, 1.23 to 7.16), but risks for bone or soft tissue sarcomas were not elevated. The cumulative incidence of SCs 50 years after diagnosis of bilateral Rb, with adjustment for competing risk of death, was significantly higher for survivors with a family history (47%; 95% CI, 35% to 59%) than survivors without a family history (38%; 95% CI, 32% to 44%; P = .004).Rb survivors with bilateral disease and an inherited germline mutation are at slightly higher risk of an SC compared with those with a de novo germline mutation, in particular melanoma, perhaps because of shared genetic alterations.

Dysplastic nevi are described as being on a continuum between common acquired nevi and melanoma because they are morphologically and biologically intermediate between these 2 entities. Since initially being reported as histologic lesions observed in melanoma-prone families, there has been considerable debate about the definition of dysplastic nevi, the histologic and clinical criteria used to define them, and their biologic importance. Their role as precursor lesions for melanoma is not their primary role in their relationship to melanoma because of the rarity of transformation of any individual nevus to a melanoma. Although there is still no single, universally agreed upon histologic or clinical definition or even name for these nevi, dysplastic nevi should be considered important because of their association with an increased risk for melanoma.

Childhood cancer five-year survival now exceeds 70-80%. Childhood exposure to radiation is a known thyroid carcinogen; however, data are limited for the evaluation of radiation dose-response at high doses, modifiers of the dose-response relationship and joint effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. To address these issues, we pooled two cohort and two nested case-control studies of childhood cancer survivors including 16,757 patients, with 187 developing primary thyroid cancer. Relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for thyroid cancer by treatment with alkylating agents, anthracyclines or bleomycin were 3.25 (0.9-14.9), 4.5 (1.4-17.8) and 3.2 (0.8-10.4), respectively, in patients without radiotherapy, and declined with greater radiation dose (RR trends, P = 0.02, 0.12 and 0.01, respectively). Radiation dose-related RRs increased approximately linearly for <10 Gy, leveled off at 10-15-fold for 10-30 Gy and then declined, but remained elevated for doses >50 Gy. The fitted RR at 10 Gy was 13.7 (95% CI: 8.0-24.0). Dose-related excess RRs increased with decreasing age at exposure (P < 0.01), but did not vary with attained age or time-since-exposure, remaining elevated 25+ years after exposure. Gender and number of treatments did not modify radiation effects. Thyroid cancer risks remained elevated many decades following radiotherapy, highlighting the need for continued follow up of childhood cancer survivors.

Population-based estimates of absolute risk of lung cancer recurrence, and of mortality rates after recurrence, can inform clinical management.We evaluated prognostic factors for recurrences and survival in 2098 lung cancer case patients from the general population of Lombardy, Italy, from 2002 to 2005. We conducted survival analyses and estimated absolute risks separately for stage IA to IIIA surgically treated and stage IIIB to IV non-surgically treated patients.Absolute risk of metastases exceeded that of local recurrence in every stage and cell type, highlighting the systemic threat of lung cancer. In stage I, the probability of dying within the first year after diagnosis was 2.7%, but it was 48.3% within first year after recurrence; in stage IV, the probabilities were 57.3% and 80.6%, respectively. Over half the patients died within one year of first metastasis. Although in stages IA to IB about one-third of patients had a recurrence, stage IIA patients had a recurrence risk (61.2%) similar to stage IIB (57.9%) and IIIA (62.8%) patients. Risk of brain metastases in stage IA to IIIA surgically treated non-small cell lung cancer patients increased with increasing tumor grade. Absolute risk of recurrence was virtually identical in adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma patients.This population-based study provides clinically useful estimates of risks of lung cancer recurrence and mortality that are applicable to the general population. These data highlight the need for more effective adjuvant treatments overall and within specific subgroups. The estimated risks of various endpoints are useful for designing clinical trials, whose power depends on absolute numbers of events.

Most men diagnosed with prostate cancer will experience indolent disease; hence, discovering genetic variants that distinguish aggressive from nonaggressive prostate cancer is of critical clinical importance for disease prevention and treatment. In a multistage, case-only genome-wide association study of 12,518 prostate cancer cases, we identify two loci associated with Gleason score, a pathological measure of disease aggressiveness: rs35148638 at 5q14.3 (RASA1, P=6.49 × 10−9) and rs78943174 at 3q26.31 (NAALADL2, P=4.18 × 10−8). In a stratified case–control analysis, the SNP at 5q14.3 appears specific for aggressive prostate cancer (P=8.85 × 10−5) with no association for nonaggressive prostate cancer compared with controls (P=0.57). The proximity of these loci to genes involved in vascular disease suggests potential biological mechanisms worthy of further investigation. Prostate cancer often does not progress to invasive disease and thus markers predicting the course of the disease progression are critical for optimal treatment choices. Here the authors show that variants at two genetic loci correlate with the aggressiveness of prostate cancer.

Metastasis is the leading cause of death in patients with osteosarcoma, the most common pediatric bone malignancy. We conducted a multistage genome-wide association study of osteosarcoma metastasis at diagnosis in 935 osteosarcoma patients to determine whether germline genetic variation contributes to risk of metastasis. We identified an SNP, rs7034162, in NFIB significantly associated with metastasis in European osteosarcoma cases, as well as in cases of African and Brazilian ancestry (meta-analysis of all cases: P = 1.2 × 10(-9); OR, 2.43; 95% confidence interval, 1.83-3.24). The risk allele was significantly associated with lowered NFIB expression, which led to increased osteosarcoma cell migration, proliferation, and colony formation. In addition, a transposon screen in mice identified a significant proportion of osteosarcomas harboring inactivating insertions in Nfib and with lowered NFIB expression. These data suggest that germline genetic variation at rs7034162 is important in osteosarcoma metastasis and that NFIB is an osteosarcoma metastasis susceptibility gene.Metastasis at diagnosis in osteosarcoma is the leading cause of death in these patients. Here we show data that are supportive for the NFIB locus as associated with metastatic potential in osteosarcoma.

Abstract Familial aggregation of Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) has been demonstrated in large population studies, pointing to genetic predisposition to this hematological malignancy. To understand the genetic variants associated with the development of HL, we performed whole genome sequencing on 234 individuals with and without HL from 36 pedigrees that had 2 or more first-degree relatives with HL. Our pedigree selection criteria also required at least 1 affected individual aged &amp;lt;21 years, with the median age at diagnosis of 21.98 years (3-55 years). Family-based segregation analysis was performed for the identification of coding and noncoding variants using linkage and filtering approaches. Using our tiered variant prioritization algorithm, we identified 44 HL-risk variants in 28 pedigrees, of which 33 are coding and 11 are noncoding. The top 4 recurrent risk variants are a coding variant in KDR (rs56302315), a 5′ untranslated region variant in KLHDC8B (rs387906223), a noncoding variant in an intron of PAX5 (rs147081110), and another noncoding variant in an intron of GATA3 (rs3824666). A newly identified splice variant in KDR (c.3849-2A&amp;gt;C) was observed for 1 pedigree, and high-confidence stop-gain variants affecting IRF7 (p.W238∗) and EEF2KMT (p.K116∗) were also observed. Multiple truncating variants in POLR1E were found in 3 independent pedigrees as well. Whereas KDR and KLHDC8B have previously been reported, PAX5, GATA3, IRF7, EEF2KMT, and POLR1E represent novel observations. Although there may be environmental factors influencing lymphomagenesis, we observed segregation of candidate germline variants likely to predispose HL in most of the pedigrees studied.

Few long-term clinical and histologic data for melanocytic lesions have been available based on the mutation status of families at an increased risk of melanoma. In the current study, the authors describe the clinical and histologic features of dysplastic nevi and melanoma over time in families at an increased risk of melanoma with differing germline mutations in CDKN2A, CDK4, or not yet identified genes.Thirty-three families with > 2 living members with invasive melanoma were evaluated clinically and followed prospectively for up to 25 years. All the participants were evaluated by the same study team at the Clinical Center of the National Institutes of Health or in local clinics. After informed consent was obtained, family members (n = 844) were examined and photographed. Blood was obtained for genetic studies; genotyping for CDKN2A and CDK4 was performed. Sequential photographs of melanocytic lesions were taken as part of the clinical evaluations. When melanocytic lesions were removed, the histology was reviewed. Representative photographs and photomicrographs were selected for six classes of lesions and three mutation groups.All the families were found to have members with dysplastic nevi and melanoma; 17 had mutations in CDKN2A, 2 had mutations in CDK4, and 14 had no mutations in either gene identified. The majority of dysplastic nevi either remain stable or regress; few change in a manner that should cause concern for melanoma. With careful surveillance, melanomas can be found early.The melanomas and dysplastic nevi that were found to occur in the study families did not appear to vary by the type of mutation identified in the families.

A cross-sectional study may be more feasible than a cohort or case-control study for examining the effect of a genetic mutation on cancer penetrance outside of cancer families. The kin-cohort design uses volunteer probands selected from a population with a relatively high frequency of the mutations of interest. By considering the cancer risk in first-degree relatives of mutation-positive and -negative probands as a weighted average of the risk in carriers and noncarriers, with weights calculated assuming a known mode of inheritance, one can infer the penetrance of the mutations. The estimates of penetrance by age 70 years for three specific mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes common among Ashkenazi Jews for the first occurrence of breast or ovary cancer is 63%. The kin-cohort design can be a useful tool for quickly estimating penetrance from volunteers in a setting in which the mutation prevalence is relatively high.

Melanocytic lesions of the genital area, especially those on the vulva, may present great difficulty in histological interpretation. A histological diagnosis of malignant melanoma was made in more than one third of 56 genital area melanocytic lesions submitted in consultation to the authors. The median age of the patients with these lesions was 25 years. This article is a clinicopathological study of these lesions and distinguishes them from malignant melanoma. The stroma of the lesions of the genital area was different from the stroma seen in the dysplastic nevi and melanoma. The differences in the stromal form in the diverse lesions is useful in diagnosis and is of profound biological significance. The stroma in the reported lesions and in some lesions of melanocytic neoplasia is described in detail, and its biological significance is discussed. Three sets of cases are used in this comparative study to delineate the clinicopathological nature and the biology of the genital nevi. The 56 cases submitted in consultation constitute the primary series of our work (The Clark Cutaneous Pathology Laboratory Series). These are compared with a series of cases from the Pigmented Lesion Group of the University of Pennsylvania and Pathology Services, Inc, and another series of cases from the Genetic Epidemiology Branch of the National Cancer Institute. The two series used for comparative study contain approximately the same number of cases of dysplastic nevi and malignant melanoma as there are atypical melanocytic nevi of the genital type in the primary series. The total number of cases was studied by comparison of their attributes in a relational database. The clinical data of the primary series was acquired through the use of a questionnaire completed by the contributors. The 56 cases presented two distinctive pathological pictures. One of these is termed atypical melanocytic nevi of the genital type (AMNGT), whereas dysplastic nevi (DN) formed the second of the two pathological pictures. There were 36 AMNGT and 14 DN. The remaining six cases were common nevi without atypia or ill-defined melanocytic hyperplasias. The lesions of AMNGT are usually located on the vulva, but they are seen on the perineum and, rarely, on the mons pubis and in the axilla. Lesions similar to AMNGT have been seen uncommonly on the male genitalia. The stromal patterns were distinctive and related to specific melanocytic lesions. An unclassified (unclass) or nonspecific stromal pattern was associated with AMNGT; a pattern of regression with differentiation (diff-regress) dominated the stroma of common dermal nevi; concentric eosinophilic fibroplasia (cef) and lamellar fibroplasia (lf) were present in dysplastic nevi; fibroplasia with a plaquelike lymphocytic infiltrate (fl) and diffuse eosinophilic fibroplasia (def) were noted in radial growth phase melanoma; and fibroplasia with angiogenesis (fa) or an absence of evidence for parenchymal stromal reciprocal interactions (nopsi) marked thick or deeply invasive vertical growth phase melanomas. Recommendations for management of the lesions are suggested.One kind of atypical melanocytic proliferation in the genital area forms a distinctive clinicopathological entity that can be distinguished from melanoma and dysplastic nevi, the AMNGT. Such lesions are more common on the labia minora or the mucosa of the clitoral region than they are on the labia majora. The other common atypical melanocytic proliferation of this area is a dysplastic nevus, which is much more common on the labia majora than on the labia minora. The reciprocal interactions between parenchyma and stroma are discussed as homeostatic processes, a continually functioning template maintaining tissue, organ, and organismal form and function. The progressive disorganization of this template in neoplasia is illustrated and is considered to be a cardinal element in the biology of neoplasia.

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Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. Tobacco smoking is its primary cause, and yet the precise molecular alterations induced by smoking in lung tissue that lead to lung cancer and impact survival have remained obscure. A new framework of research is needed to address the challenges offered by this complex disease.We designed a large population-based case-control study that combines a traditional molecular epidemiology design with a more integrative approach to investigate the dynamic process that begins with smoking initiation, proceeds through dependency/smoking persistence, continues with lung cancer development and ends with progression to disseminated disease or response to therapy and survival. The study allows the integration of data from multiple sources in the same subjects (risk factors, germline variation, genomic alterations in tumors, and clinical endpoints) to tackle the disease etiology from different angles. Before beginning the study, we conducted a phone survey and pilot investigations to identify the best approach to ensure an acceptable participation in the study from cases and controls. Between 2002 and 2005, we enrolled 2101 incident primary lung cancer cases and 2120 population controls, with 86.6% and 72.4% participation rate, respectively, from a catchment area including 216 municipalities in the Lombardy region of Italy. Lung cancer cases were enrolled in 13 hospitals and population controls were randomly sampled from the area to match the cases by age, gender and residence. Detailed epidemiological information and biospecimens were collected from each participant, and clinical data and tissue specimens from the cases. Collection of follow-up data on treatment and survival is ongoing.EAGLE is a new population-based case-control study that explores the full spectrum of lung cancer etiology, from smoking addiction to lung cancer outcome, through examination of epidemiological, molecular, and clinical data. We have provided a detailed description of the study design, field activities, management, and opportunities for research following this integrative approach, which allows a sharper and more comprehensive vision of the complex nature of this disease. The study is poised to accelerate the emergence of new preventive and therapeutic strategies with potentially enormous impact on public health.

Statistical analyses of 1,475 histologically confirmed cases of malignant mesothelioma ascertained through the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program of the National Cancer Institute for the years 1973-1984 showed age at diagnosis, sex, stage of disease, type of treatment, and geographic area of residence to be important predictors of patient survival, although type of treatment may be confounded with prognostic factors (patients selected for surgical treatment tended to have better performance status than other patients). Women below the age of 50 had an unusually long survival, even after adjustment for the effects of other variables in the model. A relatively large proportion of female cases had site of disease designated as peritoneum, but site was not a significant prognostic factor. These results suggest that age, gender and stage of disease should be carefully considered in designing and analyzing clinical trials for persons with mesothelioma. Survival was shorter in the 4 SEER registries which had shipbuilding as a major industry than in the others with less potential asbestos exposure, offering weak support for the hypothesis that asbestos-exposed cases of mesothelioma have worse survival experience than other cases.

We developed a model to estimate the 5-year absolute risk of melanoma to efficiently identify individuals at increased risk of melanoma for potential interventions.We used data from a case-control study with 718 non-Hispanic white patients with invasive cutaneous melanoma from melanoma clinics in Philadelphia, PA and San Francisco, CA; matched controls were 945 patients from outpatient clinics with similar catchment areas. All participants underwent extensive interviews and skin examinations. We selected easily obtained clinical characteristics and responses to simple questions for study in order to develop sex-specific relative risk models. These models were combined with incidence and mortality rates by United States geographic areas to develop estimates of the absolute risk of developing melanoma within 5 years.Relative risk models yielded an attributable risk of 86% for men and 89% for women, using at most seven variables. Attributable risks did not vary by age, ultraviolet B flux or hours outdoors. The absolute individual risks varied widely, depending on age, other host characteristics, and geographic area. Individual absolute risk can be estimated using a program available online.Our procedures allow for estimating the absolute risk of developing melanoma to assist in the identification of patients at high risk. Such high-risk individuals could undergo interventions including a complete skin examination, counseling to avoid sun exposures, regular self and professional surveillance, or participation in prevention trials. It is important to emphasize that these projections are not intended to identify current melanoma cases.

Familial eosinophilia (FE) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by peripheral hypereosinophilia of unidentifiable cause with or without other organ involvement. To localize the gene for FE, we performed a genomewide search in a large U.S. kindred, using 312 different polymorphic markers. Seventeen affected subjects, 28 unaffected bloodline relatives, and 8 spouses were genotyped. The initial linkage results from the genome scan provided evidence for linkage on chromosome 5q31-q33. Additional genotyping of genetic markers located in this specific region demonstrated significant evidence that the FE locus is situated between the chromosome 5q markers D5S642 and D5S816 (multipoint LOD score of 6.49). Notably, this region contains the cytokine gene cluster, which includes three genes-namely, those for interleukin (IL)-3, IL-5, and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-whose products play important roles in the development and proliferation of eosinophils. These three cytokine genes were screened for potential disease-specific mutations by resequencing of a subgroup of individuals from the present kindred. No functional sequence polymorphisms were found within the promoter, the exons, or the introns of any of these genes or within the IL-3/GM-CSF enhancer, suggesting that the primary defect in FE is not caused by a mutation in any one of these genes but, rather, is caused by another gene in the area.

Over the past 20 years, the incidence of cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) has increased dramatically worldwide. A positive family history of the disease is among the most established risk factors for CMM; it is estimated that 10% of CMM cases result from an inherited predisposition. Although mutations in two genes, CDKN2A and CDK4, have been shown to confer an increased risk of CMM, they account for only 20%-25% of families with multiple cases of CMM. Therefore, to localize additional loci involved in melanoma susceptibility, we have performed a genomewide scan for linkage in 49 Australian pedigrees containing at least three CMM cases, in which CDKN2A and CDK4 involvement has been excluded. The highest two-point parametric LOD score (1.82; recombination fraction [theta] 0.2) was obtained at D1S2726, which maps to the short arm of chromosome 1 (1p22). A parametric LOD score of 4.65 (theta=0) and a nonparametric LOD score of 4.19 were found at D1S2779 in nine families selected for early age at onset. Additional typing yielded seven adjacent markers with LOD scores >3 in this subset, with the highest parametric LOD score, 4.95 (theta=0) (nonparametric LOD score 5.37), at D1S2776. Analysis of 33 additional multiplex families with CMM from several continents provided further evidence for linkage to the 1p22 region, again strongest in families with the earliest mean age at diagnosis. A nonparametric ordered sequential analysis was used, based on the average age at diagnosis in each family. The highest LOD score, 6.43, was obtained at D1S2779 and occurred when the 15 families with the earliest ages at onset were included. These data provide significant evidence of a novel susceptibility gene for CMM located within chromosome band 1p22.

Melanoma is a complex, heterogeneous cancer that continues to increase in incidence. Multiple studies have consistently identified major host and environmental risk factors for melanoma. Nevi, particularly dysplastic nevi, confer much higher risks than most pigmentary characteristics. Ultraviolet radiation exposure is the predominant environmental risk factor for melanoma. Recently, both rare high risk susceptibility genes and common polymorphic genes contributing to melanoma risk have been identified.

Eight cutaneous malignant melanomas occurred in 6 of 1405 patients with Hodgkin's disease, although the expected incidence rate was 0.77 (relative risk, 8; 95% confidence interval, 3 to 17). One melanoma was a thin, level II lesion less than 0.76 mm thick; the rest were mostly bulky, deeply invasive lesions despite close clinical surveillance. The melanomas spread aggressively; 3 of 6 patients died within 1 to 3 years. Two of the six patients developed a second primary malignant melanoma 1 year after the first. Two of six patients had biopsy-proven dysplastic nevus syndrome, a known precursor to cutaneous malignant melanoma, and an additional 3 patients had clinical evidence of dysplastic nevus syndrome. Histologically, the malignant melanomas showed a sparse inflammatory infiltrate, an abnormal host response seen previously in cutaneous melanomas developing in immunosuppressed patients. Dysplastic nevi may identify patients at highest risk who require modified medical management.

Carrying the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A ( CDKN2A ) germline mutations is associated with a high risk for melanoma. Penetrance of CDKN2A mutations is modified by pigmentation characteristics, nevus phenotypes, and some variants of the melanocortin-1 receptor gene ( MC1R ), which is known to have a role in the pigmentation process. However, investigation of the associations of both MC1R variants and host phenotypes with melanoma risk has been limited. We included 815 CDKN2A mutation carriers (473 affected, and 342 unaffected, with melanoma) from 186 families from 15 centers in Europe, North America, and Australia who participated in the Melanoma Genetics Consortium. In this family-based study, we assessed the associations of the four most frequent MC1R variants (V60L, V92M, R151C, and R160W) and the number of variants (1, ≥2 variants), alone or jointly with the host phenotypes (hair color, propensity to sunburn, and number of nevi), with melanoma risk in CDKN2A mutation carriers. These associations were estimated and tested using generalized estimating equations. All statistical tests were two-sided. Carrying any one of the four most frequent MC1R variants (V60L, V92M, R151C, R160W) in CDKN2A mutation carriers was associated with a statistically significantly increased risk for melanoma across all continents (1.24 × 10 −6 ≤ P ≤ .0007). A consistent pattern of increase in melanoma risk was also associated with increase in number of MC1R variants. The risk of melanoma associated with at least two MC1R variants was 2.6-fold higher than the risk associated with only one variant (odds ratio = 5.83 [95% confidence interval = 3.60 to 9.46] vs 2.25 [95% confidence interval = 1.44 to 3.52]; Ptrend = 1.86 × 10 −8 ). The joint analysis of MC1R variants and host phenotypes showed statistically significant associations of melanoma risk, together with MC1R variants (.0001 ≤ P ≤ .04), hair color (.006 ≤ P ≤ .06), and number of nevi (6.9 × 10 −6 ≤ P ≤ .02). Results show that MC1R variants, hair color, and number of nevi were jointly associated with melanoma risk in CDKN2A mutation carriers. This joint association may have important consequences for risk assessments in familial settings.

Aggregate results from genome-wide association studies (GWAS), such as genotype frequencies for cases and controls, were until recently often made available on public websites because they were thought to disclose negligible information concerning an individual's participation in a study. Homer et al. recently suggested that a method for forensic detection of an individual's contribution to an admixed DNA sample could be applied to aggregate GWAS data. Using a likelihood-based statistical framework, we developed an improved statistic that uses genotype frequencies and individual genotypes to infer whether a specific individual or any close relatives participated in the GWAS and, if so, what the participant's phenotype status is. Our statistic compares the logarithm of genotype frequencies, in contrast to that of Homer et al., which is based on differences in either SNP probe intensity or allele frequencies. We derive the theoretical power of our test statistics and explore the empirical performance in scenarios with varying numbers of randomly chosen or top-associated SNPs.

Abstract In a population‐based case‐control study from East Denmark including 474 cases with cutaneous malignant melanoma and 926 controls we evaluated the influence of diet, alcohol, smoking, bathing habits and hair dyes on the risk of this cancer. Patients with lentigo maligna melanoma were not included. We observed no effect of dietary factors on risk of melanoma. No association was found between risk of melanoma and alcohol intake, tobacco smoking, bathing habits or hair dye use.

Two recent genome-wide association studies have independently identified a prostate cancer susceptibility locus on chromosome 10q11.2. The most significant single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker reported, rs10993994, is 57 bp centromeric of the first exon of the MSMB gene, which encodes beta-microseminoprotein (prostatic secretory protein 94). In this study, a fine-mapping analysis using HapMap SNPs was conducted across a approximately 65-kb region (chr10: 51168330-51234020) flanking rs10993994 with 13 tag SNPs in 6,118 prostate cancer cases and 6,105 controls of European origin from the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS) project. rs10993994 remained the most strongly associated marker with prostate cancer risk [P = 8.8 x 10(-18); heterozygous odds ratio (OR) = 1.20, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.11-1.30; homozygous OR = 1.64, 95% CI: 1.47-1.86 for the adjusted genotype test with 2 df]. In follow-up functional analyses, the T variant of rs10993994 significantly affected expression of in vitro luciferase reporter constructs. In electrophoretic mobility shift assays, the C allele of rs10993994 preferentially binds to the CREB transcription factor. Analysis of tumor cell lines with a CC or CT genotype revealed a high level of MSMB gene expression compared with cell lines with a TT genotype. These findings were specific to the alleles of rs10993994 and were not observed for other SNPs determined by sequence analysis of the proximal promoter. Together, our mapping study and functional analyses implicate regulation of expression of MSMB as a plausible mechanism accounting for the association identified at this locus. Further investigation is warranted to determine whether rs10993994 alone or in combination with additional variants contributes to prostate cancer susceptibility.

Polymorphisms in genes coding for enzymes that activate tobacco lung carcinogens may generate inter-individual differences in lung cancer risk. Previous studies had limited sample sizes, poor exposure characterization, and a few single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) tested in candidate genes. We analyzed 25 SNPs (some previously untested) in 2101 primary lung cancer cases and 2120 population controls from the Environment And Genetics in Lung cancer Etiology (EAGLE) study from six phase I metabolic genes, including cytochrome P450s, microsomal epoxide hydrolase, and myeloperoxidase. We evaluated the main genotype effects and genotype-smoking interactions in lung cancer risk overall and in the major histology subtypes. We tested the combined effect of multiple SNPs on lung cancer risk and on gene expression. Findings were prioritized based on significance thresholds and consistency across different analyses, and accounted for multiple testing and prior knowledge. Two haplotypes in EPHX1 were significantly associated with lung cancer risk in the overall population. In addition, CYP1B1 and CYP2A6 polymorphisms were inversely associated with adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma risk, respectively. Moreover, the association between CYP1A1 rs2606345 genotype and lung cancer was significantly modified by intensity of cigarette smoking, suggesting an underlying dose-response mechanism. Finally, increasing number of variants at CYP1A1/A2 genes revealed significant protection in never smokers and risk in ever smokers. Results were supported by differential gene expression in non-tumor lung tissue samples with down-regulation of CYP1A1 in never smokers and up-regulation in smokers from CYP1A1/A2 SNPs. The significant haplotype associations emphasize that the effect of multiple SNPs may be important despite null single SNP-associations, and warrants consideration in genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Our findings emphasize the necessity of post-GWAS fine mapping and SNP functional assessment to further elucidate cancer risk associations.

To investigate the risk of uterine fibroids and other reproductive risk factors in women with hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer (HLRCC).Case-control study.National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland. Patients A family-based case-control study was conducted between July 1, 2004, and June 30, 2006, including 105 women from families with HLRCC ascertained throughout North America. A telephone interview was conducted with all participants using a standardized questionnaire that elicited information about their menstrual, pregnancy, uterine fibroid, and hormonal contraceptive use history. Diagnosis of uterine fibroids was confirmed by pathologic diagnosis and by medical record review. DNA was extracted from blood samples and was screened for germline mutations in the fumarate hydratase (FH) gene.FH germline mutation status, presence of uterine fibroids, age at diagnosis, and symptoms and treatment of uterine fibroids.Of 105 women, 77 reported a history of uterine fibroids. Regardless of uterine fibroid status, 75 of 105 women had a germline mutation in FH (FH(mut) positive). The risk of uterine fibroids in FH(mut)-positive women was statistically significantly increased compared with that in FH(mut)-negative women (odds ratio [OR], 7.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.9-20.0), as it was among women clinically affected with HLRCC compared with those clinically unaffected with HLRCC (8.6; 3.1-24.0). The median age at uterine fibroid diagnosis for FH(mut)-positive women (28 years) was significantly younger than that for FH(mut)-negative women (38 years) (P =.03). Women with a germline mutation in FH or clinically affected with HLRCC reported younger age at menarche (P < .004) compared with FH(mut)-negative women (P = .02) or women who were clinically unaffected with HLRCC. Women with HLRCC were more likely to have had treatment for uterine fibroids (OR, 4.6; 95% CI, 1.4-15.8), including hysterectomy (P =.02) at an earlier age compared with women who were clinically unaffected with HLRCC.This study provides the first evidence (to our knowledge) that women with germline mutations in FH and with clinical HLRCC have an increased risk of developing uterine fibroids. These women also have a younger age at uterine fibroid diagnosis and are more likely to have treatment for uterine fibroids at a younger age than women without HLRCC in their families.

Exposure to occupational carcinogens is an important preventable cause of lung cancer. Most of the previous studies were in highly exposed industrial cohorts. Our aim was to quantify lung cancer burden attributable to occupational carcinogens in a general population.We applied a new job-exposure matrix (JEM) to translate lifetime work histories, collected by personal interview and coded into standard job titles, into never, low and high exposure levels for six known/suspected occupational lung carcinogens in the Environment and Genetics in Lung cancer Etiology (EAGLE) population-based case-control study, conducted in Lombardy region, Italy, in 2002-05. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated in men (1537 cases and 1617 controls), by logistic regression adjusted for potential confounders, including smoking and co-exposure to JEM carcinogens. The population attributable fraction (PAF) was estimated as impact measure.Men showed an increased lung cancer risk even at low exposure to asbestos (OR: 1.76; 95% CI: 1.42-2.18), crystalline silica (OR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.00-1.71) and nickel-chromium (OR: 1.18; 95% CI: 0.90-1.53); risk increased with exposure level. For polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, an increased risk (OR: 1.64; 95% CI: 0.99-2.70) was found only for high exposures. The PAFs for any exposure to asbestos, silica and nickel-chromium were 18.1, 5.7 and 7.0%, respectively, equivalent to an overall PAF of 22.5% (95% CI: 14.1-30.0). This corresponds to about 1016 (95% CI: 637-1355) male lung cancer cases/year in Lombardy.These findings support the substantial role of selected occupational carcinogens on lung cancer burden, even at low exposures, in a general population.

Melanoma rates are rising among young women, possibly due to increasing UV radiation to previously protected body sites. Therefore, we examined melanoma incidence trends by age, gender, and body site. Descriptive methods were complemented with the age-period-cohort parameters net drift and longitudinal age trend.Case and population data were obtained from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) 9 Registries Database (1975-2006). Net drift summarized the average annual percentage change in log-linear rates per year of calendar-time (or year of diagnosis). Longitudinal age trend summarized the average annual percentage change by attained age at diagnosis. Early- and late-onset melanomas have low and high longitudinal age trends, respectively.There were 105,829 melanomas diagnosed in the SEER 9 Registries. The overall age-adjusted incidence rate (IR) for melanoma was 17.7/100,000 person-years. Age-specific IRs were greater among women than men prior to age 40 years. Among women, IRs decreased for all anatomic sites relative to the trunk. The highest net drift occurred in truncal lesions among women (net drift, 3.8%/year of calendar time; 95% confidence interval, 3.5-4.0%). The lowest longitudinal age trends also were observed for truncal lesions among women (longitudinal age trend, 5.4%/year of attained age; 95% confidence interval, 5.1-5.7).Although melanoma IRs overall have risen for decades, the combination of high net drift and low longitudinal age trend show that melanomas are rising preferentially on the trunk among young women.Future surveillance and analytic studies should consider melanoma effect modification by age, gender, and body site.

Recent evidence from several relatively small nested case‐control studies in prospective cohorts shows an association between longer telomere length measured phenotypically in peripheral white blood cell (WBC) DNA and increased lung cancer risk. We sought to further explore this relationship by examining a panel of seven telomere‐length associated genetic variants in a large study of 5,457 never‐smoking female Asian lung cancer cases and 4,493 never‐smoking female Asian controls using data from a previously reported genome‐wide association study. Using a group of 1,536 individuals with phenotypically measured telomere length in WBCs in the prospective Shanghai Women's Health study, we demonstrated the utility of a genetic risk score (GRS) of seven telomere‐length associated variants to predict telomere length in an Asian population. We then found that GRSs used as instrumental variables to predict longer telomere length were associated with increased lung cancer risk (OR = 1.51 (95% CI = 1.34–1.69) for upper vs . lower quartile of the weighted GRS, p value = 4.54 × 10 −14 ) even after removing rs2736100 ( p value = 4.81 × 10 −3 ), a SNP in the TERT locus robustly associated with lung cancer risk in prior association studies. Stratified analyses suggested the effect of the telomere‐associated GRS is strongest among younger individuals. We found no difference in GRS effect between adenocarcinoma and squamous cell subtypes. Our results indicate that a genetic background that favors longer telomere length may increase lung cancer risk, which is consistent with earlier prospective studies relating longer telomere length with increased lung cancer risk.

The DNA repair pathways help to maintain genomic integrity and therefore genetic variation in the pathways could affect the propensity to develop cancer. Selected germline single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the pathways have been associated with esophageal cancer and gastric cancer (GC) but few studies have comprehensively examined the pathway genes. We aimed to investigate associations between DNA repair pathway genes and risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and GC, using data from a genome-wide association study in a Han Chinese population where ESCC and GC are the predominant cancers. In sum, 1942 ESCC cases, 1758 GC cases and 2111 controls from the Shanxi Upper Gastrointestinal Cancer Genetics Project (discovery set) and the Linxian Nutrition Intervention Trials (replication set) were genotyped for 1675 SNPs in 170 DNA repair-related genes. Logistic regression models were applied to evaluate SNP-level associations. Gene- and pathway-level associations were determined using the resampling-based adaptive rank-truncated product approach. The DNA repair pathways overall were significantly associated with risk of ESCC (P = 6.37 × 10(-4)), but not with GC (P = 0.20). The most significant gene in ESCC was CHEK2 (P = 2.00 × 10(-6)) and in GC was CLK2 (P = 3.02 × 10(-4)). We observed several other genes significantly associated with either ESCC (SMUG1, TDG, TP53, GTF2H3, FEN1, POLQ, HEL308, RAD54B, MPG, FANCE and BRCA1) or GC risk (MRE11A, RAD54L and POLE) (P < 0.05). We provide evidence for an association between specific genes in the DNA repair pathways and the risk of ESCC and GC. Further studies are warranted to validate these associations and to investigate underlying mechanisms.