Henri Tajfel

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Abstract The aim of the studies was to assess the effefcs of social categorization on intergroup behaviour when, in the intergroup situation, neither calculations of individual interest nor previously existing attitudes of hostility could have been said to have determined discriminative behaviour against an outgroup. These conditions were satisfied in the experimental design. In the first series of experiments, it was found that the subjects favoured their own group in the distribution of real rewards and penalities in a situation in which nothing but the variable of fairly irrelevant classification distinguished between the ingroup and the outgroup. In the second series of experiments it was found that: 1) maximum joint profit independent of group membership did not affect significantly the manner in which the subjects divided real pecuniary rewards; 2) maximum profit for own group did affect the distribution of rewards; 3) the clearest effect on the distribution of rewards was due to the subjects' attempt to achieve a maximum difference between the ingroup and the outgroup even at the price of sacrificing other ‘objective’ advantages. The design and the results of the study are theoretically discussed within the framework of social norms and expectations and particularly in relation to a ‘generic’ norm of outgroup behaviour prevalent in some societies.

This chapter presents an outline of a theory of intergroup conflict and some preliminary data relating to the theory. Much of the work on the psychology of intergroup relations has focused on patterns of individual prejudices and discrimination and on the motivational sequences of interpersonal interaction. The intensity of explicit intergroup conflicts of interests is closely related in human cultures to the degree of opprobrium attached to the notion of renegade or traitor. The basic and highly reliable finding is that the trivial, ad hoc intergroup categorization leads to in-group favoritism and discrimination against the out-group. Many orthodox definitions of social groups are unduly restrictive when applied to the context of intergroup relations. The equation of competition and intergroup conflict rests on the assumptions concerning an ideal type of stratification in which the salient dimensions of intergroup differentiation are those involving scarce resources.

Abstract The initial stimulus for the theorizing presented here was provided by certain experimental investigations of intergroup behavior. The laboratory analog of real-world ethnocentrism is in-group bias—that is, the tendency to favor the in-group over the out-group in evaluations and behavior. Not only are incompatible group interests not always sufficient to generate conflicts but there is a good deal of experimental evidence that these conditions are not always necessary for the development of competition and discrimination between groups (for example, Ferguson & Kelley, 1964; Rabbie & Wilkens, 1971; Doise & Sinclair, 1973; Doise & Weinberger, 1973).

Contributors Preface Henri Tajfel Introduction Henri Tajfel Part I. The Cognitive Construction of Groups: 1. Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group John C. Turner 2. The determination of collective behaviour Stephen Reicher 3. Social identity and relations of power between groups Jean-Claude Deschamps 4. Intergroup relations and attribution process Miles Hewstone and J. M. F. Jaspars Part II. The Dynamics of Interaction Between Groups: Experimental Studies: 5. Perceived illegitimacy and intergroup relations Brian Caddick 6. The battle for acceptance: an investigation into the dynamics of intergroup behaviour Rupert J. Brown and Gordon F. Ross 7. Power and intergroup discrimination Sik Hung Ng 8. Cross-cultural studies of minimal groups: implications for the social identity theory of intergroup relations Margaret Wetherell 9. Individuality and membership in the intergroup system Murray Horwitz and Jacob M. Rabbie Part III. Contexts of Social Identity: Ethnicity and Social Differentials: 10. Intergroup conflict in Northern Ireland Ed Cairns 11. Problems of identity and social conflict: research on ethnic groups in Italy Dora Capozza, Emiliana Bonaldo and Alba Di Maggio 12. Intergroup relations, ethnic identity and self-evaluation in Indonesia J. M. F. Jaspars and Suwarsih Warnaen 13. The Swedish-speaking Finns: a case study of ethnolinguistic identity Karmela Liebkind 14. Intergroup perceptions in British higher education: a field study Richard Y. Bourhis and Peter Hill 15. Open conflict and the dynamics of intergroup negotiations Claude Louche Part IV. Conclusion: 16. Instrumentality, identity and social comparisons Henri Tajfel Subject index Author index.

Acknowledgements Foreword Jerome S. Bruner 1. The development of a perspective Part I. Social Psychology and Social Processes: Introduction 2. Experiments in a vacuum 3. Individuals and groups ion social psychology Part II. From Perceptual Judgement to Social Stereotypes: Introduction 4. The importance of exagerrating 5. Differences and similarities: some contexts of judgement 6. Cognitive aspects of prejudice 7. Social stereotypes and social groups Part III. Insiders and Outsiders: Introduction 8. The experience of prejudice 9. The beginnings of ethnocentrism 10. Children's international perspectives Part IV. Intergroup Conflict: Introduction 11. The attributes of intergroup behaviour 12. Social categorization, social identity and social comparison 13. The achievement of group differentiation 14. Exit and voice in intergroup relations 15. The social psychology of minorities References Indices.

Abstract The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ‚minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their esthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ‚real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity. It was found that, as soon as the notion of ‚group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ‚group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects' decisions. The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social‐cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour.

Journal of Social IssuesVolume 25, Issue 4 p. 79-97 Cognitive Aspects of Prejudice1 Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author First published: Autumn 1969 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb00620.xCitations: 549 1 This essay was the 1968 winner of the first annual Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize, made possible by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith and awarded by SPSSI. The paper is a slightly revised version of a contribution to a symposium on the Biosocial Aspects of Race which was organized by the Eugenics Society and held in London in September, 1968. The symposium was published in July, 1969 as Supplement No. 1 to the Journal of Biosocial Science. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume25, Issue4Autumn 1969Pages 79-97 RelatedInformation

Abstract Studied the effects of reward magnitude and comparability of the outgroup on minimal intergroup discrimination where self‐interest was related to ingroup profit. Favouritism towards own group is hypothesized to arise from intergroup comparisons to enhance self‐esteem as well as instrumental rivalry for group and self‐interest. Sixty‐two fourteen to fifteen years' old school‐boys and girls were randomly assigned to a high or low reward condition in which they distributed monetary rewards, via choice‐matrices, to the ingroup and a relevant comparison outgroup, and the ingroup and an irrelevant comparison outgroup. Monetary self‐interest was explicitly and directly linked to ingroup's absolute profit. Ss sacrificed group and personal gain to achieve intergroup differences in monetary outcomes favouring the ingroup; and were less fair and more discriminatory towards the relevant than irrelevant outgroup. especially with High Rewards.

The investigation is concerned with the effects on judgement of some relations between the manner in which stimuli of a series are classified and the magnitudes of the stimuli. It is shown that when the classification stands in a direct and predictable relation to a physical scale, the stimuli belonging to different classes are judged as farther apart on that scale than in an unclassified series. A classification which is not coherently related to the physical scale does not affect judgement in this manner. There is also evidence in the results that, as a function of past experience with the classification, an increase occurs in the apparent differences between stimuli belonging to different classes, and in the apparent similarity of stimuli belonging to the same class. The relevance of these findings to the general problem of stereotyping is discussed.

In a recent paper, Taylor & Brown have argued that, although research in social psychology needs to take into account the social context of social behaviour, the theories should aim at the explanation of individual behaviour. The present paper argues against this view as it applies to some important issues in social psychology. First, it is contended that the ‘individualistic’ bias of research in social psychology derives from the nature of the theories dominating the discipline. Second, a theory of inter‐group behaviour is briefly outlined in order to show that its structure and aims are different in some important ways from the individualistic theories. The bias of these theories which is due to their assumption that social behaviour takes place inside homogeneous and unstructured social systems is illustrated using as examples the theory of belief similarity in prejudice and equity theory.

Stimuli which form a series may differ from each other in their physical magnitudes and in their value to the subject; they may also be classified according to various attributes. A theoretical schema is presented which is based on some assumptions about the effects of the interaction of these three variables upon absolute judgements pertaining to series of stimuli. These assumptions allow for predictions of shifts of judgement in a number of series in which these variables are found in various combinations. Many of these combinations are representative of conditions under which judgements in social situations are made. An attempt is also made to apply some predictions following from the schema to judgements involving not only physical but also abstract continua.

Several studies have shown that social categorization into groups, unaffected by other variables such as own interest, interpersonal relations, conflict of interests, previous hostility, etc., was a sufficient condition to induce discrimination against an outgroup. The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that the subjects' uncertainty and insecurity in a novel situation was, at least in part, responsible for this phenomenon. Two groups of subjects were tested: one group was made familiar with the social and physical setting of the experiment in a situation closely resembling the actual experiment, and came back for a second session in which the actual experiment was conducted; the second group came only for the actual experimental session. The results clearly indicate that, contrary to the hypothesis, the “familiar” group engaged in more out-group discrimination than the “unfamiliar” one. The theoretical and methodological implications of this finding are discussed.

Summary The aim of this paper was to stress the importance of the adaptive cognitive functioning of man in the causation of prejudice. It was felt that this approach has the merits of economy, credibility and testability of explanation which are not always shared by views seeking the psychological causes of intergroup tensions in the evolutionary past of the species or in unconscious motivation. Three cognitive processes were considered from the point of view of their relevance to the genesis of prejudice in an individual: categorization, assimilation, and search for conceptual coherence. Though the paper was not concerned either with discussing ways to reduce prejudice or with outlining in any detail designs for future research, it is my belief that the general approach adopted here has implications, both for social action and for research, which have not been as yet consistently and fully taken into account.

Abstract The study was designed, using the ‚matched‐guise' technique, to determine how different groups of Welshmen perceive members of their own national group who use various linguistic codes. Three matched groups of adult Welsh Ss were used: Bilinguals, those who were learning Welsh and those who could not speak Welsh and were not learning it either. These Ss were asked to evaluate on 22 scales the personalities of various Welsh speakers they heard reading the same passage of prose on tape. Essentially, the stimulus tape consisted of two male bilinguals reading the passage once each in Welsh, in English with a Welsh accent and in English with an RP accent. It was found, despite the fact that the groups differed in their language skills and self‐perceived Welshness, that Ss as a whole upgraded the bilingual speakers on most traits. Indeed, the RP speakers were evaluated most favourably on only one trait ‐ self‐confidence. It was suggested that language to a large extent serves as a symbol of Welsh identity, and the results were discussed in relation to how other ethnic groups appear to view their own linguistic codes.

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 2, Issue 3 p. 307-321 European Activities Some developments in European social psychology† Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author First published: July/September 1972 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420020307Citations: 56 † This paper is a shortened and revised version of the presidential report delivered at the plenary conference of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology, Louvain, April 1972. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume2, Issue3July/September 1972Pages 307-321 RelatedInformation

Children's strategies in giving money to others were examined in an intergroup condition, based on a weak' act of social categorization, and in an interpersonal condition, based on strong friendship choice. Over a series of trials, coins were arranged on cards so that each decision was made in a 3 x 2 matrix. Children used a Maximum Difference (relative gain) strategy to a marked degree, a Maximum Ingroup Payoff (absolute gain) to some extent, but a Maximum Joint Payoff strategy hardly at all. The Maximum Difference strategy was used as much in the weak' intergroup condition as in the strong interpersonal condition, and as frequently among younger as among older children.

Social identity, independence and the social group a reply to Rabbie et al intragroup processes, group structure and social identity the categorization process cognition and the group in the social psychology of stereotyping accentuation revisisted social identity, self as structure and self as process Tajfel's contribution to the reduction of intergroup conflict power - an essay in honour of Henri Tajfel Let the Wheelchair Through an intergroup approach to interability communication children and racism - beyond the value of dolls constructing social identities the individual/social binary in Henri Tajfel's social psychology social identity and time social identity and social change rethinking the context of social psychology remembering the background of social identity theory.

Contributors Part IV. Representations of Social Reality: 18. Attitudes in a social context J. Richard Eiser and Joop van der Pligt 19. Social dimensions of attribution Miles Hewstone and Joseph M. F. Jaspars 20. The historical dimension of social psychology: the case of unemployment Peter Kelvin 21. Rationality and social control in orthodox systems Jean-Pierre Deconchy 22. Political ideology: social psychological aspects Michael Billig Part V. Group Processes: 23. Social groups, nonsense groups and group polarization Colin Fraser and Donald Foster 24. The influence of minorities: ten years later Gabriel Mugny 25. Social identification and psychological group formation John C. Turner Part VI. Intergroup Relations: 26. The social psychology of intergroup relations and categorical differentiation Jean-Claude Deschamps 27. Intergroup differences in group perceptions Ad F. M. van Knippenberg 28. The individual and social functions of sex role stereotypes Carmen Huici 29. The role of similarity in intergroup relations Rupert J. Brown 30. Social psychology and political economy Sik Hung Ng 31. Intergroup and interpersonal dimensions of bargaining and negotiation G. M. Stephenson 32. Second language acquisition: the intergroup theory with catastrophic dimensions Peter Ball, Howard Giles and Miles Hewstone 33. Intergroup relations, social myths and social justice in social psychology Henri Tajfel Subject index Author index.

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 10, Issue 4 p. 399-414 Short Research Notes Minimal group situations and intergroup discrimination: Comments on the paper by Aschenbrenner and schaefer Dr. Rupert Brown, Dr. Rupert Brown Social Psychology Research Unit, University of Kent at Canterbury, The Univerity, Beverley Farm, Canterbury, Kent, EnglandSearch for more papers by this authorHenri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this authorJohn Turner, John Turner University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author Dr. Rupert Brown, Dr. Rupert Brown Social Psychology Research Unit, University of Kent at Canterbury, The Univerity, Beverley Farm, Canterbury, Kent, EnglandSearch for more papers by this authorHenri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of BristolSearch for more papers by this authorJohn Turner, John Turner University of BristolSearch for more papers by this author First published: October/December 1980 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420100407Citations: 53AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume10, Issue4October/December 1980Pages 399-414 RelatedInformation

Much of this book is concerned with the ‘social dimension’ of social psychology. This chapter follows the trend. It attempts to bring together three issues which have all been, in one way or another, at the forefront of several of the preceding chapters. All three appear in the title of the chapter. The main reason for bringing them together is that they are all of direct relevance to collective behaviour, a subject left severely alone by most of ‘mainstream’ social psychology. The three themes are concerned, by definition, with collective behaviour. In the case of intergroup relations, this is so because these relations do not empirically exist unless some clearly identifiable uniformities can be found in the attitudes and behaviour displayed by members of one social group towards the members of another. In the case of social myths, they are neither social nor myths if they are not widely diffused within a social or cultural context. They filter the information received about people and events and may determine in this way important common features of social attitudes and social behaviour. In the case of social justice, we are dealing again with collective phenomena, since the concern is with the social psychology of justice or injustice as it refers to relations between large-scale socially defined and evaluated categories of people rather than with interpersonal processes, to which Chapter II of this book, by Mikula, is devoted.

The investigation is concerned with assessing the effects of value on judgements of weight of a series of stimuli. It was found that an association of value with either the heavy or the light end of the series leads to changes in the judged relationships between the stimuli of the series; the most pronounced effect is that the stimuli at the opposite ends of the series tend to be judged as more different from each other in the value than in the neutral condition. In a control experiment, in which value was associated indiscriminately with all the stimuli of the series, no such effects were observed. Further control experiments, in which the end stimuli of the series were emphasized by means other than attaching value to them, also yielded negative results. The study is viewed in the context of the general problem of the effects that abstract attributes of stimuli may have on judgements of their physical characteristics. An explanation of the findings is formulated in terms of anchoring, and their relevance to perceptual over‐estimation and to some related problems is discussed.

A test of factual knowledge of about 10 nations was developed and applied to 96 Oxford children aged from 7 to 11, whose preferences for these nations had already been determined. The relationship between preference for and knowledge about other nations was found to be curvilinear in form and did not seem to be accountable for in terms of a similar relationship in environmentally available cues. Working‐class children displayed considerably less knowledge than middle‐class children. The causal implications of the findings are discussed.

Des groupes d'enfants, de 6 à 12 ans, sont testés dans six villes européennes (Oxford, Glasgow, Leyde, Louvain, Naples et Vienne) pour voir s'ils montrent une préférence pour leur propre nationalité. L'étude utilise une méthode nouvelle et simple qui garantit sans ambiguïté la comparabilité des données pour tous les âges et pour tous les pays. Les résultats montrent que (1) à l'exception du groupe de Glasgow, tous les enfants manifestent une préférence marquée pour leur nationalité; (2) à l'exception du groupe de Louvain, cette préférence est plus forte avec l'âge. Lorsqu'on compare les données obtenues à Naples avec celles des autres villes, on constate qu'un stéréotype physique national se développe chez les enfants à mesure qu'ils grandissent. Les implications théoriques des résultats et des exceptions que représentent les groupes de Glasgow et de Louvain sont commentées.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the joint effects of the child's level of intellectual maturity and of his system of preferences on his ability to understand that people other than himself (nationals of his own and of other countries that he ‘liked’ or ‘disliked’) would behave on the basis of principles guiding his own behaviour. The development of this ability to ‘reciprocate’ was investigated using tests of a fairly concrete nature and one actual play situation. The study confirmed previous findings, that as a function of age the children's preference for their own country becomes more marked and consistent and that they are also increasingly able to adopt the point of view of others; it has also shown, however, that this capacity is affected by the order of preferences in the sense that it is achieved with greater difficulty for countries which are disliked. These combined effects of age and affectivity, together with clear‐cut differences that were found between the behaviour of children from different social backgrounds, suggest that the development of national and international attitudes can be best understood when three major variables are taken into account: level of intellectual development, breadth of relevant experience, and the socially derived system of preferences.

The investigation is concerned with the relation between the subjective importance of a personal attribute and the manner of judging other people in terms of that attribute. A prediction was made that in a task involving the rating of others in terms of a number of attributes, there will be a tendency to use relatively extreme judgments for attributes which are important to the person making the judgments. This hypothesis, derived from a background of general findings about quantitative judgment, was confirmed. It was tested in a situation in which the subjects were able to give fairly free descriptions of others. Some time after these descriptions were made, each subject rated photographs on rating scales based on his own use of various attributes. The salience of attributes (i.e. their relative priority and frequency of occurrence in free descriptions of others) was assumed to be an index of their importance to the subjects. This assumption was tested and validated in a separate experiment.

In a previous study, conducted in several European countries with children between the ages of 6 and 11, it was found that the subjects expressed a preference for people whom they assumed to be nationals of their own country in a photograph‐sorting task. One exception to the general pattern of results was found in the data obtained with Scottish children from Glasgow who did not express a preference for their own nationals. The present paper reports two further studies conducted in Glasgow, one in Oxford and one in Haifa. The common purpose of these studies was to test the hypothesis that, even in situations which are not characterized by intense intergroup tensions and/or by a clear ‘visibility’ of differences between groups (as in the case of the Scots and the English or of Israeli Jews of ‘European’ and of ‘Oriental’ origin), the children are sensitive to subtle social influences which lead to a ‘devaluation’ of their own group as compared with an outgroup conceived in some sense to be ‘dominant’ or ‘superior’. This hypothesis was confirmed. The implications of the data are discussed in relation to the general literature on the attitudes towards their own group held by children who are members of racial and ethnic groups which are underprivileged.

Abstract The present study consists of three related experiments which are concerned with the development of national attitudes in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It was predicted on the basis of a structural interpretation of Allport's three‐stage developmental theory of prejudice that national attitudes will increase at first due to increasing consistency of judgment and decrease afterwards due to cognitive differentiation. The hypothesis is partially confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards other countries but not confirmed with respect to the attitudes of children towards people who are perceived as foreigners. A tentative explanation is offered for the last finding. It was shown moreover that the attitudes of older children display more cognitive balance than those of younger children. In connection with the last problem, a quantified modification Bf Heider's theory of balanced states was introduced.

Journal of PersonalityVolume 32, Issue 1 p. 90-108 Individual consistencies in categorizing: a study of judgmental behavior1 Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorAlan Richardson, Alan Richardson University of Western Australia On sabbatical leave from the University of Western AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorLouis Everstine, Louis Everstine University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this author Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorAlan Richardson, Alan Richardson University of Western Australia On sabbatical leave from the University of Western AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorLouis Everstine, Louis Everstine University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this author First published: March 1964 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1964.tb01328.xCitations: 18 1 This investigation was conducted as part of a research project supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation, NSF-G 17919 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume32, Issue1March 1964Pages 90-108 RelatedInformation

Previous articleNext article No AccessARTICLESHOBBES AND HULL—METAPHYSICIANS OF BEHAVIOUR*R. S. PETERS and H. TAJFELR. S. PETERS1. Birbeck CollegeLondon W. C. I Search for more articles by this author and H. TAJFEL2. Barnett HouseOxford Search for more articles by this author * Reveived 27 ix 55PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science Volume 8, Number 29May 1957 Society: The British Society for the Philosophy of Science Views: 4Total views on this site Citations: 1Citations are reported from Crossref Views: 4Total views on this site Citations: 1Citations are reported from Crossref Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/VIII.29.30 Views: 4Total views on this site Citations: 1Citations are reported from Crossref © 1957 by The Authors. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article: John W. Copeland Philosophy Disguised as Science, Philosophy of Science 31, no.22 (Oct 2015): 168–172.https://doi.org/10.1086/287995

International Journal of PsychologyVolume 3, Issue 3 p. 213-219 International Platform for Psychologists DEBATE SECOND THOUGHTS ABOUT CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS1 Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of Bristol, EnglandSearch for more papers by this author Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of Bristol, EnglandSearch for more papers by this author First published: October 1968 https://doi.org/10.1080/00207596808247247Citations: 4 1 Professor Tajfel wrote this paper at the invitation of the Editor; it is the hope that others would submit articles to the International platform commenting on the discussions which take place in the platform or raising issues for a general debate. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat REFERENCES Berkowitz, L. 1966. A laboratory investigation of social class and national différences in helping behavior. International Journal of Psychology, 1: 231–242. Gibb, C. 1967. International conference on social psychological research in developing countries. Australian Psychologist, 2: 40–45. Van Gils, M. R. and Koekebakker, J. 1965. The first European summer school on social psychology The Hague July 15-August 11, Items, 1965, 19, 50–54 Jahoda, G. and Moscovici, S. 1967. European Association of Experimental Social Psychology. Social Science Information, 6: 297–505. Janousek, J. 1967. Mezinarodni konference socialnich psychologu ve Vidni. Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 11: 470–477. Kelman, H. C. 1967. Psychological research on social change: Some scientific and ethical issues. International Journal of Psychology, 2: 301–313. Kohlberg, L. 1964. "Development of moral character and moral ideology". In Child development research, Edited by: M. L. Hoffman and L. W. Hoffman Vol. 1, 383–431. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Lanzetta, J., Tajfel, H. and Festinger, L. 1967. Transnational social psychology: Notes on the international conference in Vienna. April 9–14 1967. Items, 1967, 21, 30–32 Nuttin, J. M. Jr. and Jaspars, J. M.F. 1967. The European research training seminar in experimental social psychology. 1967. University of Louvain. July 31-September 2, Items, 1967, 21, 41–45 Soutendijk, S. 1966. Evaluation of the European summer school on social psychological problems in organisations (1965), based on survey data, University of Leiden. Mimeo Report Tajfel, H. 1964. Problems of international cooperation in social psychological research concerned with new and developing countries Mimeo Report Tajfel, H. 1965. European Association for the Advancement of Experimental Social Psychology. Social Science Information, 4: 190–192. Tajfel, H. 1966. International cooperation in social psychology: Some problems and possibilities. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 19: 29–36. Citing Literature Volume3, Issue3October 1968Pages 213-219 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Journal of PersonalityVolume 32, Issue 4 p. 550-565 Individual judgment consistencies in conditions of risk taking1 Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorAlan Richardson, Alan Richardson University of Western Australia On sabbatical leave from the University of Western Australia, a part of which was spent in OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorLouis Everstine, Louis Everstine University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this author Henri Tajfel, Henri Tajfel University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorAlan Richardson, Alan Richardson University of Western Australia On sabbatical leave from the University of Western Australia, a part of which was spent in OxfordSearch for more papers by this authorLouis Everstine, Louis Everstine University of OxfordSearch for more papers by this author First published: December 1964 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1964.tb01358.xCitations: 5 1 This investigation was conducted as part of a research project supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation, NSF-G 17919 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume32, Issue4December 1964Pages 550-565 RelatedInformation

Twenty‐four subjects were presented with a series of stimuli, all of equal length (5 in.), and asked to classify each as being or not being 5 in. long. The subjects were then divided into three groups (broad, middle and narrow categorizers) according to the number of including and excluding responses that they gave. It was found that: ( a ) the decision times of both extreme groups were considerably shorter than those of the middle group; ( b ) there was a tendency for the extreme groups to have shorter decision times for their preferred type of response; but this tendency did not reach statistical significance.

The social psychologist could perhaps adopt provisionally the simple statement that, whatever else it may be, nationalism is an attitude shared by millions of people in a large variety of cultural contexts. The psychological analysis of national attitudes must remain in the here-and-now, it must remain a-historical. The principal aim is the study of ethnocentrism; as a result of this, the processes of ingroup identification are seen mainly in the context of the attitudes towards outgroups. All motivational and cognitive processes entering into social behavior are relevant in one way or another to the study of national affiliation. When an individual is confronted with the unanimity of a small group concerning a specific issue, he finds himself in a closed system of social influence. Every social scientist must be able to attain from time to time this perspective of a Martian visitor.

British Journal of PsychologyVolume 59, Issue 2 p. 99-104 GORDON WILLARD ALLPORT (1897–1967) First published: May 1968 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1968.tb01120.xCitations: 1AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume59, Issue2May 1968Pages 99-104 RelatedInformation

What does it take to make you believe you are a member of a group? The tradition of the British pantomime usually has one piece where the audience is asked to sing, divided into two groups, and encouraged to compete against each other to see who sings the loudest. The members of the audience invariably oblige by singing their hearts out. Each person believes they are a member of a team and acts to support that team. The studies by Sherif (summarised earlier in this chapter) suggested that groups only develop strong intergroup feelings when there is conflict, and this conflict is the crucial precursor of ethno-centrism. However, conflict is not present in all interactions between groups, but ethnocentrism can still develop.

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 4, Issue 4 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: October/December 1974 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420040401AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume4, Issue4October/December 1974Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 3, Issue 3 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: July/September 1973 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420030301AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume3, Issue3July/September 1973Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 5, Issue 3 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: July/September 1975 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420050301AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume5, Issue3July/September 1975Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 3, Issue 4 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: October/December 1973 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420030401AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume3, Issue4October/December 1973Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation

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European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 6, Issue 3 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: July/September 1976 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420060301AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume6, Issue3July/September 1976Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation

European Journal of Social PsychologyVolume 6, Issue 1 p. fmi-fmi MastheadFree Access Masthead First published: January/March 1976 https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420060101AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume6, Issue1January/March 1976Pages fmi-fmi RelatedInformation