Edward L. Deci

Intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation have been widely studied, and the distinction between them has shed important light on both developmental and educational practices. In this review we revisit the classic definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in light of contemporary research and theory. Intrinsic motivation remains an important construct, reflecting the natural human propensity to learn and assimilate. However, extrinsic motivation is argued to vary considerably in its relative autonomy and thus can either reflect external control or true self-regulation. The relations of both classes of motives to basic human needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are discussed. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theory has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness--which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy.

Well-being is a complex construct that concerns optimal experience and functioning. Current research on well-being has been derived from two general perspectives: the hedonic approach, which focuses on happiness and defines well-being in terms of pleasure attainment and pain avoidance; and the eudaimonic approach, which focuses on meaning and self-realization and defines well-being in terms of the degree to which a person is fully functioning. These two views have given rise to different research foci and a body of knowledge that is in some areas divergent and in others complementary. New methodological developments concerning multilevel modeling and construct comparisons are also allowing researchers to formulate new questions for the field. This review considers research from both perspectives concerning the nature of well-being, its antecedents, and its stability across time and culture.

Abstract Cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self‐determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self‐determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is an empirically based theory of human motivation, development, and wellness. The theory focuses on types, rather than just amount, of motivation, paying particular attention to autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation as predictors of performance, relational, and well-being outcomes. It also addresses the social conditions that enhance versus diminish these types of motivation, proposing and finding that the degrees to which basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported versus thwarted affect both the type and strength of motivation. SDT also examines people’s life goals or aspirations, showing differential relations of intrinsic versus extrinsic life goals to performance and psychological health. In this introduction we also briefly discuss recent developments within SDT concerning mindfulness and vitality, and highlight the applicability of SDT within applied domains, including work, relationships, parenting, education, virtual environments, sport, sustainability, health care, and psychotherapy.

Two laboratory experiments and one field experiment were conducted to investigate the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation to perform an activity. In each experiment, subjects were performing an activity during three different periods, and observations relevant to their motivation were made. External rewards were given to the experimental subjects during the second period only, while the control subjects received no rewards. Of interest was the difference in the experimental group's motivation between Period 1 and Period 3, relative to the difference in the control's. The results indicate that (a) when money was used as an external reward, intrinsic motivation tended to decrease, whereas (b) when verbal reinforcement and positive feedback were used, intrinsic motivation tended to increase. Discrepant findings in the literature were reconciled using a new theoretical framework which employs a cognitive approach and concentrates on the nature of the external reward. If a boy who enjoys mowing lawns begins to receive payment for the task, what will happen to his intrinsic motivation for performing this activity? Or, if he enjoys gardening and his parents seek to encourage this by providing verbal reinforcement and affection when he gardens, what will happen to his intrinsic motivation for gardening? These are examples of the classical problem concerning the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation. One is said to be intrinsically motivated to perform an activity when he receives no apparent rewards except the activity itself. This intrinsic motivation might be either innate or learned (White, 1959). It is not the purpose of this study to deal with the specific nature of, or development of, intrinsic motivation, but rather, it assumes that at a given time a person can be intrinsically motivated to do an activity, and it then asks: What are the effects of external rewards on this motivation ? In the two examples of the boy, he is performing the activity for no apparent rewards 1 These studies were conducted at Carnegie-Mell on University. The author wishes to thank Victor H. Vroom and Daryl J. Bern for helpful suggestions about the research and about earlier drafts of the manuscript.

This paper describes the development and validation of a general causality orientations scale. Causality orientations are conceptualized as relatively enduring aspects of people that characterize the source of initiation and regulation, and thus the degree of self-determination, of their behavior. Three orientations—autonomy, control, and impersonal—are measured by the three subscales of the instrument. Individuals are given a score on each orientation, thus allowing the use of the theoretically appropriate subscale (or, in some cases, a combination of subscales) to predict affects, cognitions, and behaviors. The scale was shown to have internal consistency and temporal stability. The orientations were shown to fit appropriately into a nomological network of constructs and to relate to various behaviors that were hypothesized to be theoretically relevant.

ABSTRACT Self‐determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) posits that ( a ) people are inherently motivated to internalize the regulation of uninteresting though important activities; ( b ) there are two different processes through which such internalization can occur, resulting in qualitatively different styles of self‐regulation; and ( c ) the social context influences which internalization process and regulatory style occur. The two types of internalization are introjection , which entails taking in a value or regulatory process but not accepting it as one's own, and integration , through which the regulation is assimilated with one's core sense of self. Introjection results in internally controlling regulation, whereas integration results in self‐determination. An experiment supported our hypothesis that three facilitating contextual factors—namely, providing a meaningful rationale, acknowledging the behaver's feelings, and conveying choice—promote internalization, as evidenced by the subsequent self‐regulation of behavior. This experiment also supported our expectation that when the social context supports self‐determination, integration tends to occur, whereas when the context does not support self‐determination, introjection tends to occur.

Self-determination theory (SDT) differentiates motivation, with autonomous and controlled motivations constituting the key, broad distinction. Research has shown that autonomous motivation predicts persistence and adherence and is advantageous for effective performance, especially on complex or heuristic tasks that involve deep information processing or creativity. Autonomous motivation is also reliably related to psychological health. Considerable research has found interpersonal contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness to enhance autonomous motivation, which comprises intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation. SDT has been applied in varied cultures and in many life domains, and research is reviewed that has related autonomous and controlled motivation to education, parenting, work, health care, sport, and close relationships.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad framework for understanding factors that facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation, autonomous extrinsic motivation, and psychological wellness, all issues of direct relevance to educational settings. We review research from SDT showing that both intrinsic motivation and well-internalized (and thus autonomous) forms of extrinsic motivation predict an array of positive outcomes across varied educational levels and cultural contexts and are enhanced by supports for students’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Findings also show a dynamic link between teacher and student motivation, as teachers are themselves impacted and constrained by controlling mandates, institutional pressures, and leadership styles. Ironically, despite substantial evidence for the importance of psychological need satisfactions in learning contexts, many current educational policies and practices around the globe remain anchored in traditional motivational models that fail to support students’ and teachers’ needs, a knowledge versus policy gap we should aspire to close.

Behavior change is more effective and lasting when patients are autonomously motivated. To examine this idea, we identified 184 independent data sets from studies that utilized self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) in health care and health promotion contexts. A meta-analysis evaluated relations between the SDT-based constructs of practitioner support for patient autonomy and patients’ experience of psychological need satisfaction, as well as relations between these SDT constructs and indices of mental and physical health. Results showed the expected relations among the SDT variables, as well as positive relations of psychological need satisfaction and autonomous motivation to beneficial health outcomes. Several variables (e.g., participants’ age, study design) were tested as potential moderators when effect sizes were heterogeneous. Finally, we used path analyses of the meta-analyzed correlations to test the interrelations among the SDT variables. Results suggested that SDT is a viable conceptual framework to study antecedents and outcomes of motivation for health-related behaviors.

Examination of motivational dynamics in academic contexts within self-determination theory has centered primarily around both the motives (initially intrinsic vs. extrinsic, later autonomous vs. controlled) that regulate learners' study behavior and the contexts that promote or hinder these regulations. Less attention has been paid to the goal contents (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) that learners hold and to the different goal contents that are communicated in schools to increase the perceived relevance of the learning. Recent field experiments are reviewed showing that intrinsic goal framing (relative to extrinsic goal framing and no-goal framing) produces deeper engagement in learning activities, better conceptual learning, and higher persistence at learning activities. These effects occur for both intrinsically and extrinsically oriented individuals. Results are discussed in terms of self-determination theory's concept of basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Three field experiments with high school and college students tested the self-determination theory hypotheses that intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) goals and autonomy-supportive (vs. controlling) learning climates would improve students' learning, performance, and persistence. The learning of text material or physical exercises was framed in terms of intrinsic (community, personal growth, health) versus extrinsic (money, image) goals, which were presented in an autonomy-supportive versus controlling manner. Analyses of variance confirmed that both experimentally manipulated variables yielded main effects on depth of processing, test performance, and persistence (all ps <.001), and an interaction resulted in synergistically high deep processing and test performance (but not persistence) when both intrinsic goals and autonomy support were present. Effects were significantly mediated by autonomous motivation.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation that evolved from research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and expanded to include research on work organizations and other domains of life. We discuss SDT research relevant to the workplace, focusing on (a) the distinction between autonomous motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and fully internalized extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation (i.e., externally and internally controlled extrinsic motivation), as well as (b) the postulate that all employees have three basic psychological needs—for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—the satisfaction of which promotes autonomous motivation, high-quality performance, and wellness. Research in work organizations has tended to take the perspectives of either the employees (i.e., their well-being) or the owners (i.e., their profits). SDT provides the concepts that guide the creation of policies, practices, and environments that promote both wellness and high-quality performance. We examine the relations of SDT to transformational leadership, job characteristics, justice, and compensation approaches.

ABSTRACT The term autonomy literally refers to regulation by the self. Its opposite, heteronomy , refers to controlled regulation, or regulation that occurs without self‐endorsement. At a time when philosophers and economists are increasingly detailing the nature of autonomy and recognizing its social and practical significance, many psychologists are questioning the reality and import of autonomy and closely related phenomena such as will, choice, and freedom. Using the framework of self‐determination theory ( Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000 ), we review research concerning the benefits of autonomous versus controlled regulation for goal performance, persistence, affective experience, quality of relationships, and well‐being across domains and cultures. We also address some of the controversies and terminological issues surrounding the construct of autonomy, including critiques of autonomy by biological reductionists, cultural relativists, and behaviorists. We conclude that there is a universal and cross‐developmental value to autonomous regulation when the construct is understood in an exacting way.

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991), when applied to the realm of education, is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a valuing of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes. These outcomes are manifestations of being intrinsically motivated and internalizing values and regulatory processes. Research suggests that these processes result in high-quality learning and conceptual understanding, as well as enhanced personal growth and adjustment. In this article we also describe social-contextual factors that nurture intrinsic motivation and promote internalization, leading to the desired educational outcomes.

We investigated 2 engagement-fostering aspects of teachers’ instructional styles—autonomy support and structure—and hypothesized that students’ engagement would be highest when teachers provided high levels of both. Trained observers rated teachers’ instructional styles and students’ behavioral engagement in 133 public high school classrooms in the Midwest, and 1,584 students in Grades 9–11 reported their subjective engagement. Correlational and hierarchical linear modeling analyses showed 3 results: (a) Autonomy support and structure were positively correlated, (b) autonomy support and structure both predicted students’ behavioral engagement, and (c) only autonomy support was a unique predictor of students’ self-reported engagement. We discuss, first, how these findings help illuminate the relations between autonomy support and structure as 2 complementary, rather than antagonistic or curvilinear, engagement-fostering aspects of teachers’ instructional styles and, second, the somewhat different results obtained for the behavioral versus self-report measures of students’ classroom engagement.

We applied the self-determination theory of human motivation to examine whether patient perceptions of autonomy supportiveness (i.e., patient centeredness) from their diabetes care providers related to improved glucose control over a 12-month period.We conducted a prospective cohort study of patients with diabetes from a diabetes treatment center at a university-affiliated community hospital. Participants were 128 patients between 18 and 80 years of age who took medication for diabetes, had no other major medical illnesses, and were responsible for monitoring their glucose and taking their medications. The main outcome measure was a change in HbA1c values over the 12 months of the studyPatient perception of autonomy support from a health care provider related to a change in HbA1c values at 12 months (P < 0.05). Further analyses showed that perceived autonomy support from the staff related to significant increases in patient autonomous motivation at 12 months (P < 0.05); that increases in autonomous motivation related to significant increases in perceived competence (P < 0.05); and that increases in a patient's perceived competence related to significant reductions in their HbA1c values over 12 months (P < 0.001).The findings support the prediction of the self-determination theory that patients with diabetes whose health care providers are autonomy supportive will become more motivated to regulate their glucose levels, feel more able to regulate their glucose, and show improvements in their HbA1c values.

The chapter discusses the empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. Intrinsically motivated behaviors, motivated by the underlying need for competence and self-determination, are investigated in a variety of ways at the physiological, psychological, and operational levels. One of the two general approaches; the incongruity theories and the competence and/or self-determination theories generally guides those focused on the psychological level. The chapter presents the performance-contingent rewards that actually enhance intrinsic motivation when administered in a way that places emphasis on effective performance rather than on reward acquisition. The research literature that explored the nature of intrinsic motivation and the effects of rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation highly support the competence and self-determination formulation of intrinsic motivation and also the propositions of cognitive evaluation theory. The results of individual studies provided the basis for greater understanding of the phenomena and greater specificity of the theory. Understanding of motivational processes is critical for explicating and predicting human behavior as well as a variety of interrelated beliefs, attitudes, and affects, the complex referred to as motivational subsystems. The chapter also describes a field study conducted in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of four elementary schools.

If a person who is intrinsically motivated to perform an activity begins to receive external reinforcement for the activity, what will happen to his intrinsic motivation? Previous studies and the present study indicate that money decreases intrinsic motivation, while verbal reinforcements tend to enhance intrinsic motivation. The beginning of a cognitive evaluation theory is discussed, and an apparently discrepant prediction between this theory and inequity theory is pointed out. It is argued, however, that the theories are not conceptually discrepant, and the present study gives support for this argument. It is possible to distinguish between two broad classes of motivation to perform an activity: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. A person is intrinsically motivated if he performs an activity for no apparent reward except the activity itself (cf. Berlyne, 1966; Hunt, 1965; White, 1959). Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, refers to the performance of an activity because it leads to external rewards (e.g., status, approval, or passing grades). The question of interest in this study is whether there will be changes in a person's intrinsic motivation for an activity when he receives external rewards for performing that activity. Deci (1971) reported that external reinforcements do affect intrinsic motivation, and he suggested the initial elements of a cognitive evaluation theory to account for the changes in intrinsic motivation following an experience with extrinsic rewards. The theory focuses on a person's cognitive evaluation of an activity and the reasons for his engaging in the activity. It suggests that distinctions should be made among different kinds of external rewards, since a person's evaluation of different rewards may be different. In turn, this would 1 The author would like to thank Wayne Cascio for serving as the first experimenter and for helping with the data analysis; Victor Vroom for making helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript; and Larry Coff for being the second experimenter.

Abstract Self-determination theory maintains and has provided empirical support for the proposition that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. Satisfaction of these basic needs facilitates people's autonomous motivation (i.e., acting with a sense of full endorsement and volition), whereas thwarting the needs promotes controlled motivation (i.e., feeling pressured to behave in particular ways) or being amotivated (i.e., lacking intentionality). Satisfying these basic needs and acting autonomously have been consistently shown to be associated with psychological health and effective performance. Social contexts within which people operate, however proximal (e.g., a family or workgroup) or distal (e.g., a cultural value or economic system), affect their need satisfaction and type of motivation, thus affecting their wellness and effectiveness. Social contexts also affect whether people's life goals or aspirations tend to be more intrinsic or more extrinsic, and that in turn affects important life outcomes.

Theories of management and work motivation distinguish between two kinds of rewards—extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards are ones such as money and verbal reinforcement which are mediated outside of the person, whereas intrinsic rewards are mediated within the person. We say a person is intrinsically motivated to perform an activity if there is no apparent reward except the activity itself or the feelings which result from the activity. All of the theories of work motivation which consider both kinds of rewards assume that the effects of the two are additive. This paper examines that assumption by reviewing a program of research which investigated the effects of external rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation. It was reported that a person's intrinsic motivation to perform an activity decreased when he received contingent monetary payments, threats of punishment for poor performance, or negative feedback about his performance. Noncontingent monetary payments left intrinsic motivation unchanged, and verbal reinforcements appeared to enhance intrinsic motivation. A cognitive evaluation theory was presented to explain these results, and the theory and results were discussed in relation to management.

Three studies examined the effects of experimentally induced motivational orientations on the subtly different positive affects of vitality and happiness. We hypothesized, based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1991; Ryan & Frederick, 1997), that doing well when autonomously motivated would enhance subjective vitality relative to doing well when controlled in one's motivation, but that doing well under the two motivational states would not have differential effects on happiness. Two experiments in which motivation was induced by instructions to participants about task engagement and a third experiment using an attributional methodology yielded the hypothesized pattern of effects. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of differentiating positive outcomes in terms of their underlying motives and of giving increased attention to understanding restorative environments.

A longitudinal randomized trial tested the self-determination theory (SDT) intervention and process model of health behavior change for tobacco cessation (N = 1006). Adult smokers were recruited for a study of smokers' health and were assigned to intensive treatment or community care. Participants were relatively poor and undereducated. Intervention patients perceived greater autonomy support and reported greater autonomous and competence motivations than did control patients. They also reported greater medication use and significantly greater abstinence. Structural equation modeling analyses confirmed the SDT process model in which perceived autonomy support led to increases in autonomous and competence motivations, which in turn led to greater cessation. The causal role of autonomy support in the internalization of autonomous motivation, perceived competence, and smoking cessation was supported.

A longitudinal study tested the self-determination theory (SDT) process model of health behavior change for glycemic control within a randomized trial of patient activation versus passive education. Glycosylated hemoglobin for patients with Type 2 diabetes (n=159) was assessed at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Autonomous motivation and perceived competence were assessed at baseline and 6 months, and the autonomy supportiveness of clinical practitioners was assessed at 3 months. Perceptions of autonomy and competence were promoted by perceived autonomy support, and changes in perceptions of autonomy and competence, in turn, predicted change in glycemic control. Self-management behaviors mediated the relation between change in perceived competence and change in glycemic control. The self-determination process model fit the data well.

The application of self-determination theory (SDT) to psychotherapy is particularly relevant because a central task of therapy is to support the client to autonomously explore, identify, initiate, and sustain a process of change. In this article, the authors discuss the experimental work, field studies, and clinical trials representing the application of SDT to the domain of psychotherapy. Evidence supports the importance of client autonomy for the attainment and maintenance of treatment outcomes. In addition, intervention studies suggest that therapist autonomy support enhances the likelihood that treatment gains will be achieved and maintained. The authors discuss some of the processes involved in enhancing autonomy, including the role of awareness, the importance of exploring and challenging introjects and external regulations, attention to need-related goal contents, and therapist attitudes required for a therapy approach that is process- rather than outcome-focused.

Self-regulation is analyzed in terms of self-determination theory using the concepts of intrinsic motivation and the internalization of extrinsic motivation. Laboratory experiments and field studies are reviewed indicating that: (1) intrinsic motivation and fully internalized extrinsic motivation are positively associated with high quality learning and personal adjustment; and (2) maintaining intrinsic motivation and internalizing extrinsic motivation are facilitated by social contexts that allow satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Such contexts are ones that are characterized by the provision of choice, optimal challenge, informational feedback, interpersonal involvement, and acknowledgment of feelings.

The self-regulatory strength model maintains that all acts of self-regulation, self-control, and choice result in a state of fatigue called ego-depletion. Self-determination theory differentiates between autonomous regulation and controlled regulation. Because making decisions represents one instance of self-regulation, the authors also differentiate between autonomous choice and controlled choice. Three experiments support the hypothesis that whereas conditions representing controlled choice would be egodepleting, conditions that represented autonomous choice would not. In Experiment 3, the authors found significant mediation by perceived self-determination of the relation between the choice condition (autonomous vs. controlled) and ego-depletion as measured by performance.

Parents' use of conditional regard as a socializing practice was hypothesized to predict their children's introjected internalization (indexed by a sense of internal compulsion), resentment toward parents, and ill-being. In Study 1, involving three generations, mothers' reports of their parents' having used conditional regard to promote academic achievement predicted (a) the mothers' poor well-being and controlling parenting attitudes, and (b) their college-aged daughters' viewing them as having used conditional regard, thus showing both negative affective consequences from and intergenerational transmission of conditional regard. Study 2 expanded on the first by using four domains, including both genders, and examining mediating processes. College students' perceptions of their mothers' and fathers' having used conditional regard in four domains (emotion control, prosocial, academic, sport) were found to relate to introjected internalization, behavioral enactment, fluctuations in self-esteem, perceived parental disapproval, and resentment of parents. Introjection mediated the link from conditional regard to behavioral enactment. The results suggest that use of conditional regard as a socializing practice can promote enactment of the desired behaviors but does so with significant affective costs.

Two studies examined autonomy support within close friendships. The first showed that receiving autonomy support from a friend predicted the recipient’s need satisfaction within the relationship and relationship quality as indexed by emotional reliance, security of attachment, dyadic adjustment, and inclusion of friend in self and that there was significant mutuality of receiving autonomy support and of each other variable. The relations of perceived autonomy support to need satisfaction and relationship quality held for both female-female and male-male pairs across the two studies. The second study replicated and extended the first, showing that receiving autonomy support also predicted psychological health. Furthermore, giving autonomy support to a friend predicted the givers’ experience of relationship quality over and above the effects of receiving autonomy support from the friend. When both receiving and giving autonomy support competed for variance in predicting well-being, giving, rather than receiving, autonomy support was the stronger predictor.

(2021). A meta-analysis of self-determination theory-informed intervention studies in the health domain: effects on motivation, health behavior, physical, and psychological health. Health Psychology Review: Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 214-244.

Guided by self‐determination theory (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985), two studies examined adolescents' risk behaviors as a function of their extrinsic aspirations for wealth, fame, and image relative to their intrinsic aspirations for growth, relationships, and community; and as a function of their perceptions of their parents' autonomy support. In the first study, adolescents who reported using cigarettes had significantly stronger relative extrinsic aspirations than did adolescents who reported not smoking. In the second study, a composite risk behavior index for adolescents' use of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana, and their having had sexual intercourse was significantly predicted by their relative extrinsic life goals, and both students' health‐compromising behaviors and their relative extrinsic goals were significantly negatively predicted by their perceptions of their parents' autonomy support.

Life goals, or aspirations, organize and direct behavior over extended periods of time. The present study, guided by self-determination theory, examined the consequences of pursuing and attaining aspirations over a one-year period in a post-college sample. Results indicated that placing importance on either intrinsic or extrinsic aspirations related positively to attainment of those goals. Yet, whereas attainment of intrinsic aspirations related positively to psychological health, attainment of extrinsic aspirations did not; indeed, attainment of extrinsic aspirations related positively to indicators of ill-being. Also as predicted, the association between change in attainment of intrinsic aspirations and change in psychological health was mediated by change in the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Discussion focuses on the idea that not all goal attainment is beneficial; rather, attainment of aspirations with different contents relates differentially to psychological health.

The authors conducted 2 studies of 9th-grade Israeli adolescents (169 in Study 1, 156 in Study 2) to compare the parenting practices of conditional positive regard, conditional negative regard, and autonomy support using data from multiple reporters. Two socialization domains were studied: emotion control and academics. Results were consistent with the self-determination theory model of internalization, which posits that (a) conditional negative regard predicts feelings of resentment toward parents, which then predict dysregulation of negative emotions and academic disengagement; (b) conditional positive regard predicts feelings of internal compulsion, which then predict suppressive regulation of negative emotions and grade-focused academic engagement; and (c) autonomy support predicts sense of choice, which then predicts integrated regulation of negative emotions and interest-focused academic engagement. These findings suggest that even parents' use of conditional positive regard as a socialization practice has adverse emotional and academic consequences, relative to autonomy support.

Self-determination theory is a broad and widely applied theory of motivation, personality development, and wellness. The theory began with a narrow focus on intrinsic motivation but has expanded over time to encompass both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and spawned new perspectives on well-being, life-goals, relationship quality, vitality and depletion, and eudaimonia, among other topics. In this overview of SDT, we first discuss the value of broad theory for psychological science. We then describe the strategy behind SDT's development, and the unfolding of its core mini-theories and topical models, from early studies on intrinsic motivation to the enormous body of research being produced today by a global community of SDT scholars. Throughout we highlight evidence for the critical role of supports for autonomy, competence and relatedness in human development and thriving, and the strong practical and translational value of a functionally-focused, and empirically-supported, theoretical framework.

Previous research has shown that when teachers are oriented toward controlling rather than supporting autonomy in their students, the students display lowered intrinsic motivation and self-esteem. The present study explored conditions that lead teachers to be more controlling versus more autonomy oriented with students. Impressing upon teachers that they are responsible for their students' performing up to standards leads them to be more controlling than teachers who were told that there were no performance standards for their students' learning. Teachers in the former condition talked more, were more critical of the students, gave more commands, and allowed less choice and autonomy. Considerable research has detailed the processes through which external events can affect a person's intrinsic motivation. In reviewing the evidence, Deci and Ryan (1980) concluded that the central parameter mediating the effects of external events on intrinsic motivation is self-determin ation. In other words, the experience of choice seems to be a necessary condition for the maintenance or enhancement of intrinsic motivation. Events that pressure people toward specified outcomes, thereby denying them the experience of choice, have repeatedly been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation. These events are referred to by Deci and Ryan as controlling. In contrast, events that provide people with meaningful feedback in the context of choice have been shown to enhance intrinsic motivation; these events are referred to as informational. There are two important components of informational events (and thus of events that enhance intrinsic motivation): They must provide choice and they must contain meaningful feedback. By meaningful, we

Motivation has received increasing attention across counseling approaches, presumably because clients’ motivation is key for treatment effectiveness. The authors define motivation using a self-determination theory taxonomy that conceptualizes motivation along a relative-autonomy continuum. The authors apply the taxonomy in discussing how various counseling approaches address client motivation and autonomy, both in theory and in practice. The authors also consider the motivational implications of nonspecific factors such as therapeutic alliance. Across approaches, the authors find convergence around the idea that clients’ autonomy should be respected and collaborative engagement fostered. The authors also address ethical considerations regarding respect for autonomy and relations of autonomy to multicultural counseling. The authors conclude that supporting autonomy is differentially grounded in theories and differentially implemented in approaches. Specifically, outcome-oriented treatments tend to consider motivation a prerequisite for treatment and emphasize transparency and up-front consent; process-oriented treatments tend to consider motivation a treatment aspect and give less emphasis to transparency and consent.

ABSTRACT Using self‐determination theory, two studies investigated the relations among perceived need support from parents, their adolescents’ autonomous self‐regulation for academics, and the adolescents’ well‐being. Study 1 indicated that perceived need support from parents independently predicted adolescents’ well‐being, although when mothers’ and fathers’ data were examined separately, the relation was stronger for mothers than for fathers. In Study 2, autonomous self‐regulation for planning to attend college was a significant partial mediator of the relation of adolescents’ perceived need support to well‐being. Thus, perceived need support from parents does seem important for the development of adolescents’ autonomous self‐regulation and well‐being.

Although the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), published in 1995, has demonstrated validity and reliability in multiple studies, the scale has received some criticisms leading to revisions herein described. The objective of the present studies was to examine the construct validity and reliability of a revised scale sport motivation scale (SMS-II). Two studies were conducted using distinct samples of athletes. Study 1 examined adult athletes participating in a variety of sports and Study 2 examined youth basketball players and swimmers. In Study 1 the SMS-II was introduced and featured various item content changes, a reduced number of items per subscale, the addition of an integrated regulation subscale, and the introduction of a single intrinsic motivation subscale to replace the three intrinsic motivation subscales in the SMS. Relations of SMS-II subscales with each other and with expected outcomes supported the new scale's validity. In Study 2, the structure of the SMS-II and its relations with outcomes were further examined. Results of factor analyses, tests for internal consistency, and correlations among the different subscales and between the subscales and several outcomes of interest, supported the validity of the SMS-II. Discussion focuses on the need for measurement improvement, and potential future directions for SMS-II research.

The papers of this special issue have the dual focus of reviewing research, especially clinical trials, testing self-determination theory (SDT) and of discussing the relations between SDT and motivational interviewing (MI). Notably, trials are reviewed that examined interventions either for behaviors such as physical activity and smoking cessation, or for outcomes such as weight loss. Although interventions were based on and intended to test the SDT health-behavior-change model, authors also pointed out that they drew techniques from MI in developing the interventions. The current paper refers to these studies and also clarifies the meaning of autonomy, which is central to SDT and has been shown to be important for effective change. We clarify that the dimension of autonomy versus control is conceptually orthogonal to the dimension of independence versus dependence, and we emphasize that autonomy or volition, not independence, is the important antecedent of effective change. Finally, we point out that SDT and MI have had much in common for each has emphasized autonomy. However, a recent MI article seems to have changed MI's emphasis from autonomy to change talk as the key ingredient for change. We suggest that change talk is likely to be an element of effective change only to the degree that the change talk is autonomously enacted and that practitioners facilitate change talk in an autonomy supportive way.

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported in Vol 106(3) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2014-07574-006). In the article, the name of author Edward Deci was missing his middle name initial and should have read as Edward L. Deci. In addition, an incorrect version of figure 1 was published.] Recent studies have examined whether electronic games foster aggression. At present, the extent to which games contribute to aggression and the mechanisms through which such links may exist are hotly debated points. In current research we tested a motivational hypothesis derived from self-determination theory-that gaming would be associated with indicators of human aggression to the degree that the interactive elements of games serve to impede players' fundamental psychological need for competence. Seven studies, using multiple methods to manipulate player competence and a range of approaches for evaluating aggression, indicated that competence-impeding play led to higher levels of aggressive feelings, easier access to aggressive thoughts, and a greater likelihood of enacting aggressive behavior. Results indicated that player perceived competence was positively related to gaming motivation, a factor that was, in turn, negatively associated with player aggression. Overall, this pattern of effects was found to be independent of the presence or absence of violent game contents. We discuss the results in respect to research focused on psychological need frustration and satisfaction and as they regard gaming-related aggression literature.

Self-determination in human behavior is based in autonomous motivation, which encompasses both intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation involves doing an activity without the necessity of external prompts or rewards because it is interesting and satisfies the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Extrinsic motivation involves doing an activity because it leads to some separate outcome such as a reward, approval from others, or the avoidance of punishment. Intrinsic motivation is invariantly autonomous, but extrinsic motivation varies in its degree of autonomy. Extrinsic motivation becomes autonomous through the processes of internalization and integration. Both intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation can be facilitated in homes, schools, workplace, athletic fields, and clinical settings that are interpersonally supportive—that is, where people's perspectives are acknowledged and they are encouraged to experiment, allowed to try their own solutions to problems, provided with choice, and responded to when they initiate. Under such supportive conditions individuals are more engaged and persistent, perform more effectively, and display higher levels of psychological health and well-being.

In this research, we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people’s affective experiences, decreasing both positive and negative high-arousal affects. In Study 1, we found that the deactivation effect occurred when people were alone, but not when they were with another person. Study 2 showed that this deactivation effect did not depend on whether or not the person was engaged in an activity such as reading when alone. In Study 3, high-arousal positive affect did not drop in a solitude condition in which participants specifically engaged in positive thinking or when they actively chose what to think about. Finally, in Study 4, we found that solitude could lead to relaxation and reduced stress when individuals actively chose to be alone. This research thus shed light on solitude effects in the past literature, and on people’s experiences when alone and the different factors that moderate these effects.

Chapter 20 The Significance of Autonomy and Autonomy Support in Psychological Development and Psychopathology Richard M. Ryan, Richard M. RyanSearch for more papers by this authorEdward L. Deci, Edward L. DeciSearch for more papers by this authorWendy S. Grolnick, Wendy S. GrolnickSearch for more papers by this authorJennifer G. La Guardia, Jennifer G. La GuardiaSearch for more papers by this author Richard M. Ryan, Richard M. RyanSearch for more papers by this authorEdward L. Deci, Edward L. DeciSearch for more papers by this authorWendy S. Grolnick, Wendy S. GrolnickSearch for more papers by this authorJennifer G. La Guardia, Jennifer G. La GuardiaSearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Dante Cicchetti, Dante CicchettiSearch for more papers by this authorDonald J. Cohen, Donald J. CohenSearch for more papers by this author First published: 05 September 2015 https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939383.ch20Citations: 14 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary This chapter, in keeping with the spirit of the field of developmental psychopathology, examines both the developmental underpinnings of healthy autonomy and the processes involved in its disruption and manifestation as pathology. It critically examines the interface between normal and impaired development. The chapter sets forth a definition of autonomy that is informed by both philosophical and clinical analyses and that differentiates autonomy from closely related constructs such as free will, independence, individualism, and detachment. Then, it explores how autonomy is intertwined with the developmental processes of intrinsic motivation, internalization, attachment, and emotional integration, paying particular attention to how conditions in the social context either support the motivational and emotional bases of normal development or, undermine these bases, leading to psychopathology. Finally, the chapter discusses the experience and dynamics of autonomy with regard to varied psychological disorder. Citing Literature Developmental Psychopathology: Volume One: Theory and Method, Second Edition RelatedInformation

Although different determinants, including genetics, temperament, and a variety of social-contextual influences, play roles in young people’s development, the role of parents is paramount to healthy psychosocial adjustment. When children’s psychological needs are satisfied, children report more well-being, engage in activities with more interest and spontaneity (intrinsic motivation), more easily accept guidelines for important behaviors (internalization), display more openness in social relationships, and are more resilient when faced with adversity and distress. This chapter will focus on how parental supports or thwarts for children’s basic psychological needs either promote or diminish the children’s mental health, social adjustment, and psychological growth.

Self-determination theory identifies a basic psychological need for autonomy as a central feature for understanding effective self-regulation and well-being. The authors explain why policy that promotes autonomous choice for behavior change is often more effective than the use of coercion, especially when evaluating policy on a broad level with a long-term perspective.

Abstract A theory of self‐determination is presented in which the concepts of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are explicated and the innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are discussed. Laboratory experiments and field studies are reviewed indicating that: (1) social contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the three basic needs — by providing optimal challenge, informational feedback, interpersonal involvement, and autonomy support — promote both intrinsic motivation and self‐determined forms of extrinsic motivation; and (2) intrinsic motivation and self‐determined extrinsic motivation are positively associated with high quality learning and personal adjustment. Particular attention is devoted to how factors in the classroom and home affect students' self‐determination and school performance.

Abstract Two studies ( n = 273 and 254) used self‐determination theory (SDT) to examine unemployed people's motivation both to search and not to search for a job. The self‐regulation questionnaire format (Ryan &amp; Connell, 1989) was used to assess participants' autonomous and controlled job‐search motivation (the ‘why’ of job search) as well as their amotivation for searching. Additionally, both autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching (the ‘why not’ of job search) was assessed. Results provide validity for these five motivational constructs and indicate, in line with SDT, that the constructs predicted reports of search behaviour, affective experiences, and well‐being. The addition of autonomous and controlled motivation for not searching contributed additional predictive power beyond the motivational constructs that focused only on searching. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

The Public Health Service (PHS) Guideline for Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence (Fiore et al. 2000) recommends supporting autonomy and perceived competence to facilitate tobacco abstinence.The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intensive tobacco-dependence intervention based on self-determination theory (SDT) and intended to support autonomy and perceived competence in facilitating long-term tobacco abstinence.One thousand and six adult smokers were recruited into a randomized cessation-induction trial. Community care participants received cessation pamphlets and information on local treatment programs. Intervention participants received the same materials and were asked to meet four times with counselors over 6 months to discuss their health in a manner intended to support autonomy and perceived competence. The primary outcome was 24-month prolonged abstinence from tobacco. The secondary outcome was 7-day point prevalence tobacco abstinence at 24 months postintervention.Smokers in the intervention were more likely to attain both tobacco abstinence outcomes and these effects were partially mediated by change in both autonomous self-regulation and perceived competence from baseline to 6 months. Structural equation modeling confirmed the SDT model of health-behavior change in facilitating long-term tobacco abstinence.An intervention based on SDT and consistent with the PHS Guideline, which was intended to support autonomy and perceived competence, facilitated long-term tobacco abstinence.

The present research uses self-determination theory to examine whether autonomous and controlled regulation of performance-approach (PAp) goals would differentially predict educational outcomes and add to the variance explained by the goal strength. Two cross-sectional studies among 10th to 12th grade students supported this hypothesis but showed that when regulations of PAp goals were entered into the same regression equation with the PAp goal strength, the PAp goal strength no longer predicted outcomes. Study 2 examined perfectionism in relation to PAp goals and types of regulation, thereby showing that whereas adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism were both positively related to PAp goals, adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism were associated with autonomous and controlled regulations, respectively. Finally, path modeling indicated that autonomous and controlled regulations of PAp goals (but not PAp goals themselves) accounted for nearly all of the relation between the types of perfectionism and learning outcomes. The discussion emphasizes that it is critical to move beyond the consideration of PAp goals per se, thereby considering the types of regulation of PAp goals.

The link between money and motivation has been a debated topic for decades, especially in work organizations. However, field studies investigating the amount of pay in relation to employee motivation is lacking and there have been calls for empirical studies addressing compensation systems and motivation in the work domain. The purpose of this study was to examine outcomes associated with the amount of pay, and perceived distributive and procedural justice regarding pay in relation to those for perceived managerial need support. Participants were 166 bank employees who also reported on their basic psychological need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation. SEM ‐analyses tested a self‐determination theory ( SDT ) model, with satisfaction of the competence and autonomy needs as an intervening variable. The primary findings were that amount of pay and employees' perceived distributive justice regarding their pay were unrelated to employees' need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation, but procedural justice regarding pay did affect these variables. However, managerial need support was the most important factor for promoting need satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation both directly, indirectly, and as a moderator in the model. Hence, the results of the present organizational field study support earlier laboratory experiments within the SDT framework showing that monetary rewards did not enhance intrinsic motivation. This seems to have profound implications for organizations concerned about motivating their employees.

Within both basic philosophy of science and theoretical biology the idea that scientific disciplines can be organized in some type of hierarchy reflecting micro-to-macro levels of analysis has been...

Mastery goals are generally considered the most adaptive achievement goals. In 2 studies, we tested whether, in line with self-determination theory, participants’ experiences of autonomy support and autonomy would affect the relations between mastery goals and psychological outcomes. In Study 1 (an experiment), 117 college students, randomly assigned to 3 groups (autonomy-supportive, autonomy-suppressive, neutral), adopted an intrapersonal-competence standard to improve graphic quality of handwriting. Results showed that mastery goals led to more positive emotional experiences when given in an autonomy-supportive context relative to the other two. Study 2 extended the research to natural settings and learners’ motives among 7th and 8th graders (n = 839) responding to questionnaires about a specific class. Results revealed stronger relations of mastery goals with interest and enjoyment and with behavioral engagement when students perceived their level of choice (experience of autonomy) as high rather than low. We therefore propose that research on achievement goals should consider both the contexts and the motives accompanying the goals.

This paper is a reply to a number of criticisms made by Scott about the work of myself and others on the topic of intrinsic motivation. First I pointed out that Scott's metatheoretic starting point is different from mine and therefore forms the basis for disagreement at the theoretical, methodological, and prescriptive stages of our work. In response to the criticism that my work does not shed light on the obscure meaning of intrinsic motivation, I briefly outlined the elements of a general theoretical framework for conceptualizing and studying intrinsic motivation in relation to other motivational processes. Within this general framework I looked more specifically at the way in which extrinsic rewards can affect a person's intrinsic motivation. I then considered some specific methodological critiques and finally turned briefly to some implications and applications of this work.

Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facilitates or thwarts integration of positive and negative past identities. Specifically, more autonomously motivated participants felt closer to, and were more accepting of, both negative and positive past characteristics and central life events, whereas more control-motivated participants were closer to and more accepting of positive, but not negative, past characteristics and events. Notably, controlled motivation hindered participants' acceptance of their own negative identities but not of others' negative identities, suggesting that control-motivated individuals' rejection of negative past identities was an attempt to distance from undesirable parts of themselves. Defensive processes, reflected in nonpersonal pronouns and escape motives, mediated interaction effects, indicating that lower defense allowed fuller integration. Integration of both positive and negative past identities predicted indicators of well-being, namely, vitality, meaning, and relatedness satisfaction.

Recent studies have documented that self-determined choice does indeed enhance performance. However, the precise neural mechanisms underlying this effect are not well understood. We examined the neural correlates of the facilitative effects of self-determined choice using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Participants played a game-like task involving a stopwatch with either a stopwatch they selected (self-determined-choice condition) or one they were assigned without choice (forced-choice condition). Our results showed that self-determined choice enhanced performance on the stopwatch task, despite the fact that the choices were clearly irrelevant to task difficulty. Neuroimaging results showed that failure feedback, compared with success feedback, elicited a drop in the vmPFC activation in the forced-choice condition, but not in the self-determined-choice condition, indicating that negative reward value associated with the failure feedback vanished in the self-determined-choice condition. Moreover, the vmPFC resilience to failure in the self-determined-choice condition was significantly correlated with the increased performance. Striatal responses to failure and success feedback were not modulated by the choice condition, indicating the dissociation between the vmPFC and striatal activation pattern. These findings suggest that the vmPFC plays a unique and critical role in the facilitative effects of self-determined choice on performance.

As the nature of work has changed in recent decades, employees are increasingly exposed to psychological demands in the workplace, which have associated consequences for employees, organizations, and society. Using self-determination theory, this study examined the dark side of work, in which frustration of basic psychological needs is associated with higher levels of work-related stress. In this model, work-related stress is associated with higher levels of somatic symptom burden, which in turn is associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion, turnover intention, and absenteeism. Results of a longitudinal analysis using data from four time points over 15 months supported these predictions. Taken together, this study advances the literature towards an understanding of the (potential) detrimental impact that need-thwarting work contexts can have on employee wellness and work-related outcomes.

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT), the present study examined whether collegiate physical education (PE) teachers' autonomy support versus control would relate to college students' wellness, knowledge, performance, and intentions to persist at physical activity beyond the PE classes. The mediating roles of students' basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as well as their types of motivation (autonomous and controlled) were also modeled. Cross-sectional study. One hundred and forty college students (Mage = 21.69, SD = 1.89) in PE classes completed questionnaires measuring their perceptions of PE teachers' autonomy support and control, as well as their own basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration and their autonomous and controlled motivation. The student outcomes were self-reports of the students' wellness (i.e., well-being and ill-being), teacher-administered tests of knowledge, teacher ratings of performance, and students' self-reports of intentions to persist at physical activity in the future. Students' perceptions of teachers' autonomy support were positively associated with each of the positive student outcomes. Students' perceptions of teachers' control were related to students' well-being (negatively), knowledge (negatively), and ill-being (positively). Students' experiences of psychological need satisfaction were significantly positively related to their autonomous motivation and marginally to their controlled motivation. Their experiences of need frustration were related only positively to controlled motivation. As expected, path analyses showed that perceived autonomy support was positively related to the positive outcomes via need satisfaction and frustration and autonomous motivation, and that perceptions of teachers' control were related to students' ill-being (positively) and knowledge (negatively) through need frustration. Consistent with SDT, the findings suggest that teachers' autonomy support is important for student's psychological need satisfaction, type of motivation, and in turn the outcomes of well-being, knowledge, performance, and intention to persist in the domain of college PE programs. Practical and theoretical implications, along with limitations and future research suggestions are discussed.

This study is a follow-up to a study by Vroom 1966 which provided evidence of the phenomenon of post-decision dissonance reduction among graduate students in a school of industrial administration who were engaged in the process of choosing organizations in which to begin their managerial careers. The present study constitutes an examination of the attitudes of those students toward their organizations one year and three and one-half years after graduation. It was found that the changed orientations toward the chosen organization exhibited immediately following choice (i.e., increased attractiveness and greater perceived instrumentality for goal attainment) were no longer in evidence after implementation of the choice. In fact, both the attractiveness of the organization and its perceived instrumentality for the attainment of goals decreased markedly during the first year and remained at a low level for at least the next two and one-half years. This study examines the processes underlying the apparent disillusionment on the part of the subjects. The implications of the results for the phenomenon of post-decision dissonance are also considered.

Abstract From the lens of Self‐Determination Theory, this study investigated the effects of a mobile application tool for identifying species on biology students’ achievement and well‐being. It was hypothesized that the mobile application, compared to a textbook, would enhance feelings of competence and autonomy and, in turn, intrinsic motivation, positive affect and achievement, because the mobile application’s built‐in functions provide students with choice and volition, informational feedback, and optimal challenges. Fifty‐eight second‐year students were randomly assigned to use either the mobile application or a textbook for a learning task. Well‐being was assessed before and after the learning task, and intrinsic motivation, perceived competence, perceived autonomy and achievement were assessed after the task. Results indicated that the mobile application, relative to the textbook, produced higher levels of students’ perceived competence, perceived autonomy and intrinsic motivation. Further, the mobile application had indirect effects on positive affect through autonomy, competence and intrinsic motivation, and on achievement through competence.

Self-determination theory suggests that autonomy support from others is important in motivating change of various health behaviors. The present research provides initial validation for the Important Other Climate Questionnaire for smoking (IOCQ–S)and for diet (IOCQ–D)in the context of a large (N 1,006)intensive tobacco treatment and dietary intervention trial. These scales are intended to measure the degree of autonomy support patients experience from important others (non-health care professionals)with respect to tobacco abstinence and eating a healthy diet. Results indicate the measures are reliable ( .87 smoking and .95 diet)and valid. Important other support was associated with change in perceived autonomy and perceived competence for target behaviors. Further, the IOCQ–S was associated with 7-day point prevalence cessation and 6-month prolonged abstinence from tobacco. The IOCQ–D was associated with a change in the percentage of calories from fat, saturated fat, and monounsaturated fat. Initial reliability and validity are supported for the IOCQ.

Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) was used to predict medical students' career choices for internal medicine or surgery based on their experiences of the autonomy support provided by the instructors in the two corresponding third-year clerkships. Fourth-year medical students (n = 210) at three medical schools completed questionnaires that assessed (1) retrospective prior likelihood (as of the end of second year) of their going into internal medicine and surgery, (2) their perceived competence with respect to these two medical specialties, (3) their interest in the problems treated in each specialty, (4) the autonomy support of the instructors on the two corresponding rotations, (5) the current likelihood (late in the fourth year) of going into each of the two specialties, and (6) their actual residency choices. For a subset (n = 64), actual prior likelihoods of going into the two careers had also been assessed at the end of their second year. Structural equation modeling confirmed, as hypothesized, (a) that perceived autonomy support of the corresponding clerkship would predict students' choices of internal medicine or surgery, even after the effects of retrospective (and actual) prior likelihood had been removed, and (b) that this relationship between perceived autonomy support and career choice was mediated by perceived competence and interest. The present study suggests that students' experiences on clerkships do affect the likelihood that they will select particular specialties, and that students' interest in the areas are good indicators of the selections they will make.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about how interventions motivate individuals to change multiple health risk behaviors. Self-determination theory (SDT) proposes that patient autonomy is an essential factor for motivating change. OBJECTIVE: An SDT-based intervention to enhance autonomous motivation for tobacco abstinence and improving cholesterol was tested. DESIGN: The Smokers’ Health Study is a randomized multiple risk behavior change intervention trial. SETTING: Smokers were recruited to a tobacco treatment center. PATIENTS: A total of 1,006 adult smokers were recruited between 1999 and 2002 from physician offices and by newspaper advertisements. INTERVENTIONS: A 6-month clinical intervention (4 contacts) to facilitate internalization of autonomy and perceived competence for tobacco abstinence and reduced percent calories from fat was compared with community care. Clinicians elicited patient perspectives and life strivings, provided absolute coronary artery disease risk estimates, enumerated effective treatment options, supported patient initiatives, minimized clinician control, assessed motivation for change, and developed a plan for change. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Twelve-month prolonged tobacco abstinence, and change in percent calories from fat and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) from baseline to 18 months. RESULTS: Intention to treat analyses revealed that the intervention significantly increased 12-month prolonged tobacco abstinence (6.2% vs 2.4%; odds ratio [OR]=2.7,P=.01, number needed to treat [NNT]=26), and reduced LDL-C (−8.9 vs −4.1 mg/dL;P=.05). There was no effect on percent calories from fat. CONCLUSIONS: An intervention focused on supporting smokers’ autonomy was effective in increasing prolonged tobacco abstinence and lowering LDL-C. Clinical interventions for behavior change may be improved by increasing patient autonomy and perceived competence.

This study compared an activation intervention to passive education in a randomized attention-control trial of 232 patients with type 2 diabetes. The activation intervention was based on Expanding Patient Involvement in Care (EPIC) trials, and was compared to time-matched passive education viewing of ADA video-tapes. Patient demographics and clinical characteristics of their diabetes were assessed with questionnaires, active involvement was assessed via ratings of taped interactions between patients and providers, and serum samples were analyzed for HbA1c. Patients in the activation condition were rated as more actively involved in discussions of diabetes self-management, and rated active involvement was predictive of improvement in glycemic control. No effect of the activation intervention was found on HbA1c. Thus, the activation intervention increased the active involvement of patients with type 2 diabetes in visits with practitioners, and active involvement led to improved glycemic control. However, the activation intervention did not improve glycemic control directly.

Two studies applied self-determination theory (SDT) to investigate the motivation for learning of rural Chinese children. The aim was to test whether findings from studies in western individualist cultures would hold up within a very different, eastern collectivist setting. In the first study, when students' autonomous and controlled motivation for a course were entered simultaneously in a regression analysis, autonomous motivation uniquely positively predicted students' perceptions of interest, competence, and choice in the course, whereas controlled motivation uniquely negatively predicted perceptions of interest and choice. In the second study students' perceptions of instructors' autonomy support during the course predicted changes in autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and perceived competence. These results were discussed in terms of SDT and culture.

Twenty-six mother-child dyads played together in a laboratory setting. Play sessions were surreptitiously videotaped (with mothers' permission), and each maternal vocalization was transcribed and coded, first into 1 of 24 categories and then ipso facto into one of three supercategories--namely, controlling, autonomy supportive, and neutral. The degree of mothers' controllingness was calculated as the percentage of vocalizations coded as controlling. This index was correlated with the intrinsic motivation of their 6- or 7-year-old children, as assessed primarily by the free-choice behavioral measure and secondarily by a child self-report measure of interest and liking for the task. Both correlations were significantly negative, thereby suggesting that the robust laboratory findings of a negative relation between controlling contexts and individuals' intrinsic motivation are directly generalizable to the domain of parenting. Results are discussed in terms of the processes that undermine intrinsic motivation and the means through which parental controllingness is communicated.

Caring for a spouse with cancer can be challenging on many levels. How caregivers adjust to this challenge may be influenced both by their personal orientation to the relationship and by their motives for providing care. In this study we examined the prediction of caregiver well-being from the relationship qualities specified by attachment theory and from motives specified by self-determination theory.Cross-sectional data reported here are from the American Cancer Society's Quality of Life Survey for Caregivers.Three measures were included as indicators of the caregiver's psychological adjustment: benefit finding in cancer caregiving experience, life satisfaction, and depressive symptoms.In structural equation models, among both husband (n = 154) and wife (n = 160) caregivers, attachment security (assessed with respect to the spouse) related positively to autonomous motives for and finding benefit in caregiving; attachment anxiety related to introjected motives for caregiving and more depression. Among husbands (but not wives), autonomous motives also related to less depression, and introjected motives related to less life satisfaction and more depression. Among wives (but not husbands), autonomous motives related to greater benefit finding.Variations in attachment orientations and in reasons for providing care are important elements in understanding the psychological well-being of cancer caregivers.

Successful school reform requires that administrators, teachers, and students internalize the value of improved teaching and learning and of the policies, structures, procedures, and behaviors implicit in the reform. This is most likely to happen when school personnel and students experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness while planning and implementing the reform. When the components of a reform are relatively flexible rather than rigid and when the processes through which the reform is introduced and implemented are autonomy supportive, people will experience greater need satisfaction and will be more likely to internalize and endorse the reform. This article focuses on one approach to comprehensive school reform, namely, First Things First, and examines it in terms of self-determination theory principles.

The concept of a human need for relatedness is among the oldest and most generative topics in psychology. Yet despite the considerable attention relatedness has received, some basic aspects of this important construct remain poorly understood. Specifically, the literature to this point has been inconclusive with regard to how one’s lifetime experiences of relatedness may be related to how much individuals value additional or new experiences of relatedness. The present investigation directly addressed this question using a multimethod approach. Three studies found consistent support for a positive association between person-level relatedness and the incremental value of new relatedness experiences. That is, those who reported having experienced more relatedness in their lives nevertheless reported anticipating and extracting more affective value from additional social encounters. By contrast, those having experienced less relatedness in life reported less incremental value—a pattern consistent with a process of person-level accommodation or desensitization.

A previous randomized clinical trial based on self-determination theory (SDT) and consistent with the Public Health Service (PHS) Guideline for Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence demonstrated that an intensive intervention could change autonomous self-regulation and perceived competence, which in part facilitated long-term tobacco abstinence. The current article describes a pragmatic comparative effectiveness trial of three SDT-based intensive tobacco-dependence interventions. Eligible participants are randomized to one of the three treatment conditions designed to facilitate long-term maintenance of tobacco abstinence, namely, Community Care (CC), which includes the 6 month SDT-based intervention previously shown to promote autonomous self-regulation, perceived competence, medication use, and tobacco abstinence; Extended Need Support (ENS), which extends the 6 month SDT-based intervention to 12 months and trains an important other to provide support for smokers' basic psychological needs; and Harm Reduction (HR), which provides extended need support and recommends medication use for participants who do not want to stop smoking completely within 30 days but who are willing to reduce their cigarette use by half. The primary outcome is 12 month prolonged abstinence from tobacco, which is assessed one year following termination of treatment (two years post-randomization). Secondary outcomes include 7- and 30 day point prevalence tobacco abstinence, number of days using smoking-cessation medication, change in autonomous self-regulation and perceived competence, and perceived need support from important others.

The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external incentives. However, little is known about the neuroscientific basis of this interplay between internal and external motivators. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation, operationalized as the free-choice time spent on a task when this was not required, and tested the neural and behavioral effects of external reward on intrinsic motivation. We found that increased duration of free-choice time was predicted by generally diminished neural responses in regions associated with cognitive and affective regulation. By comparison, the possibility of additional reward improved task accuracy, and specifically increased neural and behavioral responses following errors. Those individuals with the smallest neural responses associated with intrinsic motivation exhibited the greatest error-related neural enhancement under the external contingency of possible reward. Together, these data suggest that human performance is guided by a “tonic” and “phasic” relationship between the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation (tonic) and the impact of external incentives (phasic).

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Test whether physicians' counseling patients for smoking cessation with an autonomy supportive rather than controlling style would increase patients' active involvement in the counseling session and increase maintained abstinence.Randomized trial of 27 community-based physicians using two interview styles, with observer ratings of patient active involvement and assessments of patient smoking status at 6 months, 12 months, and 30 months.Adult smokers: 336 recruited; 249 for final analyses.Physicians used an autonomy- supportive or controlling interpersonal style, randomly assigned within physician, to briefly counsel patients about smoking cessation, using the National Cancer Institute's 4-A's model.Patient active involvement was rated from audio tapes of the interviews. Continuous abstinence came from self-reports at 6 months, 12 months, and 30 months, CO validated at 6 months or 12 months and at 30 months.Physician style did not have a significant direct effect on smoking cessation but did significantly increase patient active involvement in the interview. Active involvement, in turn, increased smoking cessation. Structural equation modeling confirmed a theoretical model in which the intervention positively predicted patient active involvement after controlling for patient reports of wanting to stop smoking, and active involvement significantly predicted continuous abstinence after controlling for previous quit attempts.Although physicians' autonomy- supportive style while counseling smokers to quit did not have a direct effect on smoking cessation, it increased patients' active involvement in the counseling session which in turn increased continuous abstinence over 30 months. Further research should clarify the direct effects of physician interpersonal style on health outcomes.

Chapter 8 Self-Determination Theory and the Relation of Autonomy to Self-Regulatory Processes and Personality Development Christopher P. Niemiec, Christopher P. Niemiec Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this authorRichard M. Ryan, Richard M. Ryan Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this authorEdward L. Deci, Edward L. Deci Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this author Christopher P. Niemiec, Christopher P. Niemiec Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this authorRichard M. Ryan, Richard M. Ryan Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this authorEdward L. Deci, Edward L. Deci Department of Clinical and Social Psychology, University of Rochester, NY, USASearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Dr Rick H. Hoyle PhD, Dr Rick H. Hoyle PhD Professor Fellow Member Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 January 2010 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444318111.ch8Citations: 29 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary This chapter contains sections titled: Philosophical Perspectives on Autonomy The Concept of Will in Psychology: Historical and Contemporary Considerations Self-Determination Theory: Metatheoretical Assumptions and Basic Psychological Needs Self-Determination Theory: The Relation of Autonomy to Self-Regulatory Processes Self-Determination Theory: The Relation of Autonomy to Personality Development The Self in Self-Determination Theory Conclusion References Citing Literature Handbook of Personality and Self‐Regulation RelatedInformation

Interpersonally controlling approaches are often used to keep individuals in line, ostensibly in order to create a safer, more civilized society. Ironically, emerging research findings indicate that when people feel controlled, they often respond by behaving in a less civilized, more antisocial manner (Gagné, 2003; Knee, Neighbors, &amp; Vietor, 2001; Mask, Blanchard, Amiot, &amp; Deshaies, 2005; McHoskey, 1999). The present research investigation explored whether a process of mechanistic dehumanization might help to explain the observed relation between interpersonal control and antisocial behavior, specifically with regard to tendencies toward violence. The results indicated that a significant relation between interpersonal control and tendencies toward interpersonal violence was partially mediated by perceived mechanistic dehumanization.

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The present study tested the hypotheses that: (a) a dental intervention designed to promote dental care competence in an autonomy-supportive way, relative to standard care, would positively predict perceived clinician autonomy support and patient autonomous motivation for the project, increases in autonomous motivation for dental home care, perceived dental competence, and dental behaviors, and decreases in both dental plaque and gingivitis over 5.5 months; and (b) the self-determination theory process model with the intervention and individual differences in autonomy orientation positively predicting project autonomous motivation and increases in perceived dental competence, both of which would be associated with increases in dental behavior, which would, in turn, lead to decreased plaque and gingivitis.A randomized two-group experiment was conducted at a dental clinic with 141 patients (Mage = 23.31 years, SD = 3.5), with pre- and postmeasures (after 5.5 months) of motivation variables, dental behaviors, dental plaque, and gingivitis.Overall, the experimental and hypothesized process models received strong support. The effect sizes were moderate for dental behavior, large for autonomous motivation for the project and perceived competence, and very large for perceived autonomy support, dental plaque, and gingivitis. A structural equation model supported the hypothesized process model.Considering the very large effects on reductions in dental plaque and gingivitis, promoting dental care competence in an autonomy-supportive way, relative to standard care, has important practical implications for dental treatment, home care, and health.

Terror management theory emphasizes that self-esteem consists of a sense of meaning and significance, which serves mainly to defend against death awareness. The current authors counter that people's search for meaning and significance cannot be wholly reduced to defensive processes because it also reflects intrinsic developmental processes. Sociometer theory similarly offers a mainly defensive account of self-esteem, and its exclusive focus on belongingness versus exclusion ill equips it to deal with the multiple needs underlying self-esteem. The current authors suggest that self-esteem resulting from defenses against anxiety (whether about death or exclusion) is akin to contingent self-esteem, whereas true self-esteem is based in ongoing satisfaction of needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

To assess aspirations for physical health over 18 months. To examine whether maintained importance of aspirations for physical health mediated and/or moderated the effect of an intensive intervention on long-term tobacco abstinence.Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention based on self-determination theory or to community care, and provided data at baseline and at 18 and 30 months post-randomization.Aspirations for physical health were better maintained over 18 months among participants in the intervention (mean change=.05), relative to community care (mean change=-.13), t=2.66, p<.01. Maintained importance of aspirations for physical health partially mediated the treatment condition effects on seven-day point prevalence tobacco abstinence (z'=1.68, p<.01) and the longest number of days not smoking (z'=2.16, p<.01), and interacted with treatment condition to facilitate the longest number of days not smoking (beta=.08, p<.05).Maintained importance of aspirations for physical health facilitated tobacco abstinence.Smokers may benefit from discussing aspirations for physical health within autonomy-supportive interventions. Patients may benefit from discussing aspirations during counseling about therapeutic lifestyle change and medication use.